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k 


AN  A T O M Y 


OF  THE 

HUMAN  BODY. 


By  william  €HESELDEN, 

SURGEON  TO  HIS  MAJESTY’S  ROYAL  HOSPITAL  AT  CHELSEA,  FELLOW 
OF  THE  ROYAL  SOCIETY,  AND  MEMBER  OF  THE  ROYAL 

ACADEMY  OF  SURGEONS  AT  PARIS.  •! 


/ 


jTirft  9lmen'can  Ctiition, 


V'. 


BOSTON: 

PRINTED  BY  MANNING  & LORING, 

Eor  J.  WHITE,  S.  HALL,  THOMAS  l5f  ANDREWS,  D.  WEST, 
W,  SPOTSWOOD,  E.  LARKIN,  J.  WEST, 

, and  the  PROPRIETOR  of 
■ . the  B^on  Boo^ore^ 


1795’ 


- ■& 


T O 

Dr.  RICHARD  MEAD, 

PHYSICIAN  TO  THE  KING, 
FELLOW  OF  THE 
COLLEGE  OF  PHYSICIANS 
IN  LONDON, 

AND  OF  THE 

ROYAL  SOCIETY. 

SIR, 

EjVERY  part  of  PHYSIC  may  juftly  pre- 
fume  on  your  proteiffion,  to  vHiom  it  owes  fo 
much  improvement.  ANATOMY  in  par- 
ticular has  received  fuch  advantage  from  your 
Lectures,  that  it  were  a kind  of  injuftice  not 
to  dedicate  all  endeavours  in  that  way  to  you  ; 
in  me,  indeed,  it  would  be  unpardonable  not  to 
offer  the  fruits  of  thofe  ftudies,  which  at  hrft  be- 
A 2 


DEDICATION. 

gan,  and  have  ftill  been  carried  on  with  your 
encouragement.  The  kind  reception  my  induftry 
has  met  with,  is  owing  to  you,  the  authority  of 
whole  opinion  has  in  every  place  fecured  me  fo 
much  favour ; efpecially  in  that  feat  of  learning, 
which  with  diftinguilhed  honours  rewarded  your 
merit. 

I am,  S I R, 

Tour  mojl  obliged  and 
Obedient  humble  fervant^ 

William  Cheselden. 


•t*  . 


PREFACE, 


^HE  Jludy  of  Anatomy,  as  it  leads  to  the 
knowledge  of  nature  and  the  art  of  healings  needs 
not  many  tedious  defcriptions  nor  minute  difeSlions  ; 
what  is  mof  worth  knowings  is  foonef  leanied^  and 
leaf  the  fuhjeB  of  difputes  ; while  dividing  and 
defcribing  the  parts ^ more  than  the  knowledge  of 
their  ufes  requires^  perplexes  the  learner^  and  makes 
the  fcience  dry  and  dijficult, 

This  edition  is  a tenth  part  larger  than  the 
former ; not  increafed  hy  defcriptions^  but  by  obfer-^ 
vations  upon  the  ufes  and  mechanifm  of  the  parts, 
with  operations  and  cafes  in  Surgery. 

‘The  plates  are  more  in  number,  larger,  better 
deftgned,  and  better  executed  than  thofe  which  were 
in  the  former  editions,  which  has  unavoidably  en- 
hanced the  price  of  this. 


CONTENTS, 


/ 


C O N I'  E N T S. 


BOOK  I. 

‘The  General  IntroduElion  Page  I 

JntroduElion  to  the  Bones  4 

Chap.  I.  Of the  Sutures  and  Bones  of  the  Cranium  1 1 


Chap.  II. 

Of  the  Bones  of  the  Face^  ^c. 

17 

Chap.  III. 

Of  the  Bones  of  the  Trunk 

21 

Chap.  IV. 

Of  the  Bones  of  the  Upper  Limbs 

29 

Chap.  V. 

Of  the  Bones  of  the  Lower  Limbs, 

34 

Chap.  VI. 

Of  the  Cartilages 

41 

Of  the  Ligaments 

Of  the  Lubricating  Glands  of  the 

44 

Joints 

47 

BOOK  II. 

Chap.  I. 

Introduction  to  the  Mufcles 

61 

Chap.  II. 

Of  the  Mufcles 

67 

BOOK  HI. 

Chap.  I. 

Of  the  External  Parts^  and  Common 

Integuments 

133 

Chap.  II. 

Of  the  Membranes  in  general 

141 

Chap.  III. 

Of  the  Salivary  Glands 

142 

Chap.  IV. 

Of  the.  Peritonceum^  Omentum^  Due- 

tus 

Alimcntalis ^ and  Mefentery 

148 

Chap,. 


CONTENTS, 


¥ 


3 


Chap.  V.  Of  the  Liver ^ Gall-Bladder^  Pano'-eas^ 


a7id  Spleen  Page  i6i‘ 

Chap.  VI.  Of  the  Vafa  LaBea  i68 

Chap.  VII.  Of  the  Pleura^  Media/linum^  Lungs  ^ 

P eincardium  and  Hea?"t  172 

Chap.  VIII.  Of  the  Arteries  and  Veins  183 

Chap.  X.  Of  the  LymphaduAs  209 

Chap.  XL  Of  the  Lymphatic  Glands  212 

Chap.  XII.  Of  the  Courfe  of  the  Alhneyit  ah- 

fraEled  from  the  foregoing  Chapters  216 

Chap.  XIII.  Of  the  Dura  Mater ^ and  Pia 

Mater  218 

Chap.  XIV.  Of  the  Cerebrum^  Cerebellum^  Me- 
dulla Oblongata^  and  Medulla  Spinalis  22  2 

Chap,  XV.  Of  the  Nerves  22  c 


BOOK  IV. 

Chap.  I.  Of  the  Urinary  and  Genital  Paj'ts 
of  Men^  together  with  the  Glandulee 
Renales  259 

Chap.  II.  Of  tl^e  Genital  Parts  ofWomeri,  'I'-ji 

Chap.  III.  Of  the  Foetus  in  Utero  278  . 

Chap.  IV.  Of  the  Eye  2 go 

Chap.  V.  Cf  the  Ear  304 

Chap.  VI.  Of  the  Senfes  of  Smelling^  Pafing 

and  Feeling  310 

Chap.  VII,  Of  Cutting  for  the  Stone  32^? 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


Since  the  laft  Edition  of  this  Book,  I have  pub- 
lifhed  fome  Obfervations  and  Cafes  in  Surgery, 
with  Prints  of  Operations  and  a Set  of  Chirurgical 
Inftrument^.  Thefe  are  annexed  to  a Tranflation 
of  Le  Dran’s  Operations  by  Mr.  Gataker  ; 
and  as  fome  of  them  relate  to  my  Anatomy,  I 
thought  it  proper  to  take  Notice  of  them  here  : At 
the  fame  Time,  in  Juftice  to  the  Merit  of  Mr.  Le 
Dr  AN,  I would  recommend  a careful  Perufal  of 
his  Book  to  all  Practitioners  in  Surgery. 


W.  CHESELDER 


ANATOMY 

OF  THE 


HUMAN  BODY. 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 

It  is  a received  opinion,  that  an  animal  body 
is  a compages  of  veffels,  varioufly  difpofed,  to 
form  parts  of  different  figures,  for  different  ufes. 
The  ancients  fuppofed  that  the  heart  and  brain 
were  firft  formed,  and  that  the  other  parts  pro- 
ceeded from  them,  and  that  the  membranes  v/ere 
derived  from  the  dura  mater,  or  pia  mater  of 
the  brain.  They  diftinguifhed  all  the  parts  into 
fpermatic  and  fanguineous  ; the  former  of  which 
they  derived  from  the  brain,  and  the  latter  from 
the  heart ; and  frequently  engaged  in  difputes 
about  the  derivation  of  parts  ; with  many  other 
things  of  the  like  nature,  confequences  of  their 
hypothefes.  But  the  modems,  by  the  affift- 

ance 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 


ance  of  glaffes,  having  made  more  accurate  obfer- 
vations,  conclude,  that  all  the  parts  exifi;  in  minia- 
ture,. from  the  firft  formation  of  the  foetus ; and 
that  their  increafe  is  only  the  extenfion  and  thick- 
ning  of  their  veffels,  and  that  no  part  owes  its  ex- 
iftence  to  another.  Thus  much  I thought  nec- 
eflary  to  premife,  that  the  reader  might  fee  for 
what  reafon  no  notice  is  taken,  in  this  treatife,  of 
fome  diftindtions  and  divifiqns  of  parts,  ufed  by 
ancient  anatomills,  and  thofe  who  have  copied 
after  them. 

^ The  conftituent  parts  of  the  animal  body,  are, 
fibres,  membranes,  arteries,  veins,  lymphsedufts, 
nerves,  glands,  excretory  veffels,  mufcles,  tendons, 
ligaments,  cartilages,  and  bones  ; to  thefe  may  be 
added,  the  hair  and  nails. 

Fibres,’  as  they  appear  to  the  naked  eye,  arc 
fimple  threads  of  the  minuteft  blood  veffels  or 
nerves,  or  both. 

Membranes  are  compages  of  fibres,  expanded 
to  cover,  or  line,  any  other  part. 

Arteries  are  tubes  that  arife  from  the  ventri- 
cles of  the  heart,  and  thence  dividing  into  branches, 
diffribute  the  blood  to  every  part  of  the  body. 

Veins  are  tubes  to  colledt  and  return  the  blood 
from  the  extremities  of  the  arteries  to  the  heart. 

Lymphsedudts  are  fine  pellucid  tubes,  to  carry 
lymph  from  all  parts,  efpeciaily  the  glands,  which 
they  difcharge  into  the  larger  veins,  and  into  the 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION.  3 

Nerves  are  fafciculi  of  cylindrical  fibres, 
which  arife  from  the  medulla  oblongata  of  the 
brain,  and  the  medulla  fpinalis,  and  terminate  in  all 
tlie  fenfitive  parts.  They  are  the  immediate  organs 
of  fenfation.  I 

A Gland  fecretory,  is  compofed  of  an  artery, 
vein,  lymphatic,  excretory  dudl,  and  nerve.  The 
ufe  of  glands  is  to  fecrete  fluids  from  the  blood,  for 
divers  ufes. 

Excretory  veffels  are  either  tubes  from 
glands  to  convey  the  fecreted  fluids  to  their  refpec-. 
tive  places  ; or  veffels  from  the  fmall  guts,  to  carry 
the  chyle  to  the  blood  veffels  ; thefe  laft  are  called 
vafa  lactea. 

Mufcles  are  diftindt  portions  of  flefh,  which  by 
contracting,  perform  the  motions  of  the  body. 

Tendons  are  the  fame  fibres  of  which  the  muf- 
cles are  compofed  ; but  more  clofely  connefted, 
that  they  may  poffefs  lefs  fpace  in  a limb,  and  be 
inferted  in  lefs  room  into  a bone. 

Ligaments  are  ftrcng  membranes,  or  bodies  of 
fibres  clofely  united,  either  to  bind  down  the 
tendons,  or  give  origin  to  the  mufcles,  or  tie  to-, 
gether  fuch  bones  as  have  motion. 

Cartilages  are  hard,  elaftic  bodies,  fmnoth  and 
infenfible  : their  ufe  is  to  cover  the  ends  of  the 
bones  that  have  motion,  to  prevent  their  attri- 
tion, &c. 

Bones  are  firm  parts  to  fuflain,  and  give  fhape  ' 
to  the  body,  &c, 

INTRODUCTIGN 


4 


INTRODUCTION 

TO  THE 

BONES. 


1 HE  ufe  of  the  bones  is  to  give  fhape  and 
firmnefs  to  the  body,  to  be  levers  for  the  muf- 
cles  to  a6t  upon,  and  to  defend  thofe  parts  from 
external  injuries  that  are  of  greateft  confequence 
to  be  preferved  ; as  the  brain,  fpinal  marrow, 
heart,  &c.  Their  fibres,  when  firft  formed  like 
the  fhells  and  ftones  of  fruits,  are  very  foft,  un- 
til by  the  addition  of  a matter,  which  is  fecreted 
into  them,  they  grow  by  degrees  to  the  hardnefs 
of  a cartilage,  and  then  perfed;  bone  ; But  this 
change  is  neither  made  in  a very  fhort  time,  nor 
begun  in  all  the  parts  of  the  fame  bone  at  once. 
Flat  bones,  that  have  their  fibres  directed  to  all  fides, 
begin  to  offify  in  or  near  a middle  point ; but  the 
cylindrical  bones,  and  all  others  whofe  fibres  are 
nearly  parallel,  begin  about  the  middle . of  each 
fibre,  and  thence  fhoot  forth  to  their  extremities  ; 
not  always  in  continued  lines,  but  frequently  begin- 
ning new  offifications,  which  foonjoin  the  former  ; 
and  by  the  continual  addition  of  this  offifying  mat- 
ter, the  bones  increafe  till  their  hardnefs  refifts  a far- 
ther extenfion  ; and  their  hardnefs  always  increaf- 
ing  while  they  are  growing,  the  increafe  of  their 
growth  becomes  flower  and  flower,  until  they  ceafe 

to 


INTRODUCTION,  &c.  5 

to  grow  at  all.  In  old  and  confumptive  perfons, 
and  fometimes  in  difeafed  or  wounded  limbs,  they 
decreafe  as  well  as  the  flefhy  parts,  though  not  fo 
faft,  becaufe  of  their  hardnefs.  Sometimes  the  of- 
lifying  matters  flows  out  of  the  bones,  and  forms 
bony  excrefcences  ; and  frequently  in  very  old  men 
it  fixes  on  the  arteries,  and  makes  them  grow  bony ; 
and  when  this  happens  to  a degree,  the  arte- 
ries lofe  their  power  to  propel  the  blood,  until  the 
extreme  parts  mortify.  And  though  the  cartilages 
and  arteries  are  moft  fubjed:  to  thefe  changes,  yet 
no  part  is  feeure  from  them  ; for  I have  feen  a 
large  part  of  the  mufcular  fibres  of  the  heart  itfelf 
perfedly  oflTified.  I have  known  one  inftance  of 
a deficiency  of  this  ofiTifying  matter,  in  the  lower 
jaw  of  an  adult  body ; where  all!  that  part  on  one 
fide,  which  is  beyond  the  teeth,  was  of  a fubftance 
between  that  of  a cartilage  and  a ligament.  In  chil- 
dren that  have  died  of  the  rickets,  I have  found 
the  nodes  on  the  bones  foft,  fpongy,  and  bloody, 
and  in  one  fubjed  feveral  of  them  as  limber  as 
leather,  and  the  perioftseum  in  fome  places  many 
times  its  natural  thicknefs  ; but  the  cartilages  and^ 
cartilaginous  epiphyfes  had  no  apparent  alteration] 
in  their  texture,  though  fome  were  fwelled  to 
more  than  twice  their  natural  diameters. 

Every  cylindrical  bone  has  a large  middle 
cavity,  which  contains  an  oily  marrow,  and  a 
great  number  of  leflTer  cells  towards  their  ex- 
tremities, which  contain  a bloody  marrow.  The 

bloody 

4 


6 


INTRODUCTION 


bloody  marrow  is  alfo  found  in  ail  fpongy  cells  of 
bones.  The  ufe  of  the  firft  kind  of  marrow,  I 
imagine,  is  to  foften,  and  render  lefs  brittle,  the 
harder  fibres  of  bones  near  which  it  is  feated  ; 
and  that  the  other  marrow  is  of  the  fame  ufe  to 
the  lefs  compact  fibres,  which  the  more  oily  mar- 
row might  have  made  too  foft ; and  that  for  this 
reafon  there  is  lefs  of  the  oily  marrow,  and  more 
of  the  bloody,  in  young  bones  than  in  old  ones. 
Every  one  of  thefe  cells  is  lined  with  a fine  mem- 
brane, and  the  marrow  in  the  larger  cells  is  alfo 
contained  in  thin  membraneous  veficles  ; in  which 
membranes  the  vcfiels  are  fpread,  which  enter 
obliquely,  about  the  middle  of  the  cylindrical 
bones,  from  fome  of  whofe  branches  the  marrow 
is  fecreted,  while  others  of  them  enter  the  internal 
fubfcance  of  the  bones  for  their  nourifhment ; and 
tho  reafon  vrhy  they  enter  obliquely  is,  that  they 
may  not  weaken  the  bones  by  dividing  too  many 
fibres  in  the  fame  place.  If  the  bones  had  been 
formed  of  the  fame  quantity  of  matter  wdthout  any 
cavities,  they  would,  if  they  were  ftraight,  be  able 
to  fuftain  the  fame  weight : But  being  made  hollow, 
their  ferength  to  refift  breaking  tranfverfely  is  in- 
creafed  as  much  as  their  diameters  are  increafed, 
without  encreafing  their  weights  ; which  mechan- 
ifm  being  yet  more  convenient  for  birds,  the  bones 
of  their  wings,  and  for  the  fame  reafon  their  quills, 
have  very  large  cavities.  But  the  bones  in  the  legs 
of  all  animals  arc  m.ore  folid,  being  formed  to  fup- 

pOrt 


O THE 


BONES.  7 

port  weiglit ; and  men’s  bodies  being  fupportea  by 
two  limbs,  the  bones  of  thofe  limbs  are  therefore 
made  more  folid  than  thofe  of  quadrupeds.  In- 
fers, and  moft  Jtf  the  fmalieft  animals,  have  ihelis 
inftead  of  bones,  like  lobfters,  which  ferve  them  alfo 
for  defence  ; and  the  mufcles,  being  infeited  -into 
the  ihells  at  a greater  diftance  from  the  centre  of 
motion  of  each  joint  than  in  animals  that  have 
bones,  their  motions  are  necelTariiy  flower,  ilrcnger 
and  more  fimple.  Therefore  in  this  fort  of  animals, 
quicknefs  of  motion,  vTere  it  is  wanted,  is  pro- 
cured by  a number  of  joints,  as  may  be  feen  m tne 
legs  of  a flea ; and  variety  of  motions  by  joints  - 
with  different  diredtions,  as  may  be  obferved  in  a 
lobffer.  In  a fractured  bone,  in  which  the  fame 
kind  of  matter  that  oflined  the  bones  at  fiiTt  is 
thrown  out  from  the  broken  ends  of  a bone,  there 
is  formed  a mafs  of  callous  m.atter,  of  equal  fohd- 
ity  with  any  part  of  the  bone,  and  of  equal  or 
greater  diameter,  which  wdll  make  the  ftrength 
of  the  bone  in  that  place  greater  than  it  was  be- 
fore ; which  is  very  convenient ; for  bones,  when 
broke,  are  feldorn  or  never  fet  in  fo  good  a direc- 
tion as  that  in  which  they  were  firfl:  formed,  and 
therefore  they  would  be  more  liable  to  be  b 
in  the  fame  place  again,  and  would  be  reunited 
with  greater  difficulty,  and  fometimes  not  at  ail, 
becaufe  the  callus,  being  lefs  vafcular  than  a bene, 
it  does  not  fo  eaflly  admit  the  offific  matter  to  flow 
through  it  to  form  a new  callus. 


Bones 


8 


INTRODUCTION 


Bones  that  are  without  motion,  as  thofe  c5f  the 
fcull,  the  ofla  innominata,  &c.  alfo  bones  with 
their  epiphyfes,  when  they  meet,  prefs  into  each 
other,  and  form  futures,  which  foon  difappear  in 
thofe  that  join,  while  their  offific  matter  is  foft ; 
but  thofe  that  grow  harder  before  they  meet,  prefs 
more  rudely  into  each  other,  an^.  make  more  un- 
even futures,  fome  of  which  in  the  fcull  endure  to 
the  greateft  age  and  fometimes  while  a bone  is 
offifying  from  its  centre,  a diftant  part  begins  a new 
OiTification,  and  forms  a diftindt  bone,  which  may 
happen  to  be  of  any  figure.  Thefe  bones  are  often- 
eft  found  in  the  lambdoital  future,  and  are  there 
called  oifa  triquetra.  But  the  ends  or  fides  of  bones 
that  are  intended  for  motion,  are  hindered  from 
uniting,  by  the  cartilages  which  cover  them  ; for 
when  thefe  cartilages  are  eroded,  the  bones  very 
readily  unite,  and  form  an  ancylofis. 

The  ends  of  all  the  bones  that  are  articulated 
for  very  manifeft  motions,  or  that  are  not  placed 
againft  other  bones  ; are  tipped  with  epiphyfes  or 
additional  bones  ; which  in  fome  meafure  de- 
termine their  growth  and  figure  ; for  if  they  had 
nothing  to  give  bounds  to  them,  they  would  flioot 
out  like  the  callus  from  the  broken  ends  of  a bone 
that  is  ill  fet,  and  grow  as  ragged  as  the  edges  of 
bones  which  are  joined  by  futures  ; and  fometimes 
epiphyfes  are  made  ufe  of  to  raife  procelfes  upon 
bones  for  the  infertions  of  mufcles,  as  the  trochan- 
ters of  the  thigh  bones,  where  it  would  weaken 

the 


TO  THE  BONES.  9 

the  bones  too  much  to  have  procefles  raifed  out  of 
their  fubftance. 

The  fibres  of  bones,  for  aught  that  we  can  dif- 
cover  from  experiments  or  microfcopical  obferva- 
tions,  appear  to  be  connected  to  each  other  by  the 
fame  means  that  the  parts  of  a fibre  are  connected, 
that  is,  by  the  ftrong  attraction  which  belongs  to 
particles  of  matter  in  contadt ; but  this  cohefion 
of  fibre  to  fibre  is  not  equal  to  that  in  the  parts  of 
a fibre,  though  very  nearly.  Indeed  if  it  was,  a 
bone  would  not  be  a ftruCture  of  fibres,  but  one 
uniform  m.afs,  like  that  of  any  pure  metal,  the  co- 
hefion of  the  parts  of  which  are  every  where  alike. 
Nor  are  the  parts  of  bones  difpofed  into  vifible  la- 
mellae, ftratum  fuper  ftratum,  as  many  have  paint- 
ed : for  though  young  bones  may  in  fome  places 
be  fplit  into  lamellae,  yet  they  not  only  appear  one 
folid  uniform  mafs  to  the  naked  eye,  but  even  with 
a microfeope,  till  we  come  to  their  inner  fpongy 
texture,  v/hich  alfo  appears  uniform.  Their  tex- 
ture, when  firft  formed,  is  every  where  loofe  and 
fpongy  : but  as  they  increafe,  they  become  in  ma- 
ny places  very  compaCt  and  denfe,  which  refults  in 
great  meafure  from  the  prelTure  of  the  bellies  of 
the  mulcles,  and  other  incumbent  parts  ; as  ap- 
pears from  the  imprefiTions  they  make  on  the  fur- 
faces  of  the  bones,  and  the  rough  fpines  that- rife 
on  the  bones  in  the  interftices  of  the  mufcles,  which 
are  A^'ery  remarkable  in  men  who  have  been  bred 
. up  in  hard  labour.  In  thofe  parts  of  the  flat  bones 
B that 


I o INTRODUCTION,  &c. 

that  receive  but  little  preffure,  the  outer  laminse 
only  become  eompad:  and  denfe,  while  the  mid- 
dle part  remains  fpongy  ; but  where  the  preffure 
is  greater,  as  on  the  fcapula  and  the  middle  of 
the  ilium,  they  become,  in  an  adult,  one  denfe 
body  or  table,  and  are  ufually  thinner  in  thofe 
places  than  in  a child  before  it  is  born.  The  cy- 
lindrical or  round  bones,  bang  preffed  moft  in 
their  middles,  become  there  very  hard  and  ftrong, 
while  their  extremities  remain  fpongy,  and  dilate 
into  large  heads,  which  make  ftronger  joints,  and 
give  more  room  for  the  origins  and  infertions  of 
the  mufcles  ; and  increafe  the  power  of  the  muf- 
cles,  by  removing  their  axis  farther  from  the 
centre  of  motion  of  any  joint  they  move. 

All  the  bones,  except  fo  much  of  the  teeth 
as  are  out  of  the  fockets,  and  thofe  paits  of  other 
bones  which  are  covered  with  cartilages,  or 
where  mufcles  or  ligaments  arife  or  are  inferted, 
are  covered  with  a fine  membrane,  which  upon 
the  fcull  is  called  pericranium,  elfewhere  peri- 
oftasum.  It  ferves  for  the  mufcles  to  Aide  eafy 
upon,  and  to  hinder  them  from  being  lacerated  by 
the  roughnefs  and  hardnefs  of  the  bones.  It  is 
every  w'^here  full  of  fmall  blood  veffels,  which  en- 
ter the  bones  for  their  nourifiiment ; but  the  in- 
ternal fubftance  of  the  larger  bones  is  nourifhed 
by  the  veffels  which  enter  obliquely  through 
their  middles,  as  has  been  before  obferved. 

CHAPTEPv 


It 


CHAPTER  1. 


Sutures  and  Bones  of  the  Cranium. 

A SUTURE  is  made  by  the  mutual  indenta- 
tion of  one  bone  with  another.  Thofe  which 
have  proper  names  are  here  defcribed ; thofe 
which  have  not,  derive  their  names  from  the 
bones  they  furround,  and  are  known  by  them.^ 
(^Sutura  coronalis  runs  acrofs  the  fcull,  from  one 
upper  edge  of  the  fphenoidal  bone  to  the  other, 
and  joins  the  parietal  bones  to  the  frontal. ) 

^Sutura  fagittalis  joins  the  parietal  bones ; be- 
gins at  the  os  occipitis,  and  is  continued  to  the  os 
frontis,  in  children  down  to  the  nofe  ; the  os  fron- 
tis  in  them  being  two  bones,  and  fometimes  fo  in 
adult  bodies.^ 

^utura -^mbdoidalis  joins  the  back  part  of  the 
olfa  bregmatis,  or  parietal  bones,  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  occipital : in  this  future  are  frequently  ob- 
ferved  fmall  bones  called  offa  triquetra,  and  fome- 
times in  other  futures.  ^ 

(l^utura  fquamofa  is  "made  by  the  upper  part  of 
the  temporal  and  fpenoidal  bones  wrapping  over 
the  lower  edges  of  the  parietal  bones.  ) 

(^Sutura  tranfverfalis  runs  acrofs  the  face  through 
the  bottoms  of  the  orbits  of  the  eyes  ; it  joins  the 
lower  edge  of  the  frontal  bone  to  the  os  fpenoides, 
maxillse  luperioris,  offa  naff,  ungues  plana,  pala- 
ti,  and  jugalia,  or  malarum.  \ 

B ^ ^ 


The 


12 


SUTURES  AND  BONES 


The  fciill  being  divided  into  many  bones,  is 
neither  fo  fubjedt  to  fradtures,  nor  to  have  fradtures 
lb  far  extended,  as  it  would  have  been  were  it 
compofed  of  one  bone  only.  This  ftrudture  is  alfo 
convenient  for  the  olTilication  of  the  bones,  as  has 
been  already  Ihewn,  and  for  the  birth ; becaufe 
thefe  bones  not  being  perfedt  at  that  time,  may 
be  prelfed  together,  and  make  the  head  lefs. 

^Ten  of  the  bones  of  the  head  compofe  the 
cranium,  to  contain  the  brain  and  defend  it  from 
external  injuries,  y 

(^Olfa  parietalia,  or  bregmatis  are  two  large 
bones  which  compofe  the  fuperior  and  lateral  parts 
of  the  fcull  ; on  the  infide  they  are  remarkably 
imprinted  by  the  arteries  of  the  dura  mater.  ) 

COs  front’s  makes  the  upper  and  fore  part^^f  the 
cranium  ; its  lower  parts  compofe* the  upper  parts 
of  the  orbits  of  the  eyes,  where  on  its  infides  are 
imprelfed  the  volvuli  of  the  brain,  which  uneven- 
nelfes  help  to  keep  that  part  of  the  brain  Heady. 
In  its  middle  above  the  os  ethrnoides  ufually  arifes 
a thin  fpine,  which  ftrengthens  that  part  of  the 
bone,  it  being  otherwife  weak  from  its  flatnefs.  In 
fome  fculls  this  fpine  is  wanting  ; but  then  the 
bone  is  ufually  thicker  in  that  place,  and  from  its 
middle,  externally,  goes  a procefs  which  fupports 
the  bones  of  the  nofe.  Immediately  above  the  os 
ethmoides  in  this  bone  is  a fmall  blind  hole,  through 
which  runs  a vein  into  the  beginning  of  the  longi- 
tudinal finus  of  the  dura  mater  ; and  on  the  upper 

edge 


OF  THE  C R A N I U M. 


edge  of  each  orbit,  a fmall  perforation,  or  a notch, 
through  which  nerves  and  an  artery  pafs  fecure  to 
the  forehead  ; it  has  alfo  a fmall  hole  in  each  orbit, 
near  the  os  planum,  through  v>rhich  paffes  a branch 
of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves.  In  the  fubftance  of 
this  bone  near  the  nofe  are  two,  three,  four,  and 
fometimes  five  finufes,  which  open  into  the  nofe  ; 
they  differ  very  much  in  different  perfons,  and  are* 
very  rarely  found  in  children.  Thefe  finufes,  and 
the  fpine  in  this  bone,  make  it  very  dangerous,  if 
not  impradiicable,  to  apply  a trephine  on  the  mid- 
dle and  lower  part  of  the  forehead,  'j 
(^s  efthmoides,  or  cribriforme,  is  a fmall 
bone,  about  two  inches  in  circumference,  feated  in 
the  anterior  part  of  the  bafis  of  the  fcull,  being  al- 
moft  furrouiided  by  the  laft  defcribed  bone.  It  is 
full  of  holes,  like  a fieve,  through  which,  it  is  faid, 
the  olfadiory  nerves  pafs,  which  I could  never  dif- 
cover.  In  its  middle  arifes  a large  procefs  named 
crifta  galli : and  oppofite  to  this  a thin  one  which 
in  part  divides  the  nofe.  The  greater  part  of  the 
laminse  fpongiofse  in  the  nofe  belong  to  this  bone.  ^ 
I^Os  fphenoldes  is  of  a very  irregular  figure  ; it 
is  feated  in  the  middle  of  the  bafis  of  the  fcull, 
bounded  by  the  os  fronds,  ethmoidcs,  vomer,  occi- 
pitis,  maxillse  fuperioris,  olfa  parietalia,  palati,  ma- 
larum,  tem.porum,  and  petrofa,  which  are  parts  of 
the  former  bones.  In  its  infide  next  the  brain  is  a 
cavity  named  fella  turcica,  wliich  is  bounded  by  four 
procelfes  called  clinoides  : under  the  two  foremofi; 

of 


14  Sutures  and  bones 

of  which  pafs  the  internal  carotid  arteries,  and  from 
their  outfides  are  continued  two  thin  long  procelfes 
upon  that  part  of  the  frontal  bone,  which  feparates 
the  anterior  lobes  of  the  brain  from  the  poilerior  ; 
oppofite  to  the  fella  turcica  is  a procefs  which  makes 
part  of  the  feptum  narium.  On  the  outfide  of  the 
fcull  adjoining  to  the  upper  jaw,  are  two  proceffes, 
*of  this  bone  on  each  fide,  named  pterygoides  from 
which  arife  one  on  each  fide  near  the  palate,  which 
have  no  name.  Over  thefe  pafs  the  tendons  of  the- 
pterygohaphilina  externi  mufcles  ; and  nearer  to- 
wards the  occiput,  between  thefe  and  the  ftyloid 
proceffes  of  the  offa  petrofa,  arife  two  more  imall 
rugged  proceffes  ; and  under  the  fella  turcica,  in 
this  bone,  is  a fmus  or  two,  for  the  moft  part,  in 
adults,  but  in  children  only  fuch  a fpongy  fubftance 
as  is  feen  in  the  ends  of  fome  of  the  bones.  Dr. 
Nichols  obferves,  this  fmus  belongs  properly  to 
the  os  ethmoides.  At  the  infide  of  the  bafis  of  the 
two  anterior  clinoid  proceffes  are  two  round  holes, 
which  are  the  firft  foramina  of  the  fcull  ; through 
thefe  the  optic  nerves  pafs  ; almoft  under  thefe,  to- 
wards the  fides  of  the  fcull,  are  two  irregular  fits,  • 
named  foramina  lacera,  or  the  fecond  foramina  of 
the  fcull,  through  which  pafs  nerves  and  blood 
veffels  into  the  orbits  of  the  eyes  ; and  under  thefe, 
towards  the  occiput,  are  two  round  holes,  which  are 
the  third  foramina,  through  which  pafs  nerves  to 
the  face  ; about  half  an  inch  nearer  the  occiput  are 
two  more,  of  an  oval  figure,  which  are  the  fourth 

foramina, 


OF  THE  C R A N I U M.  15 

foramina,  through  which  pafs  the  largefl  branches 
of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves  ; and  a ftraw’s  breadth 
farther  two  very  fmall  ones,  called  the  fifth  fora- 
mina, through  which  thofe  branches  of  the  carotid 
arteries  enter  that  are  bellowed  upon  the  dura 
mater.  Between  this  laft  defcribed  bone  and  the 
ofla  petrofa  are  two  large  rough  holes,  in  Vv^hich 
I have  feen  large  veins ; and  from  thefe  holes, 
through  part  of  the  os  fphenoides  under  the  pte- 
rygoid proceifes,  are  fmall  holes,  through  which 
pafs  arteries  to  the  back  part  of  the  nofe. 
i Ofla  temporum  are  fituated  below  the  parie- 
tal bones,  at  the  middle  and  lower  parts  of  the  fides 
■of  the  fculi ; they  have  each  at  their  back  parts 
one  large  fpongy  procefs,  called  mammillaris,  or 
maftoideus,  and  from  the  lower  and  middle  parts 
of  each  a procefs  which  joins  the  offa  malarum, 
named  jugalis  or  zygomaticus.^ 
j Ofla  petrofa  lie  between  the  former  bones 
and  the  occipital  bones,  or  are  truly  portions  of  the 
former  bones,  being  never  found  feparate  in  adult 
bodies.  They  have  each  on  their  outfides  one  long 
flender  procefs  called  ftyliformis,  and  near  the  fide 
of  this  procefs  a foramen,  which  runs  obliquely 
forwards  into  the  fcull,  through  which  the  carotid 
arteries  pafs  to  the  brain  ; thefe  are  the  fixth  fora- 
mina, and  one  foramen  in  the  infide  of  the  fcull 
leading  to  the  organs  of  hearing,  which  are  the  fev- 
enth  foramina.  The  ridge  on  the  upper  parts  of 
each  of  thefe  bones  helps  to  keep  the  brain  fteady, 

and 


i6  SUTURES  AND  BONES 

and  are  ftrong  fupports  to  the  thin  and  flat  parts 
of  the  fcull,  which  elfe  would  be  exceeding  weak. 
What  remains  of  this  bone  belongs  properly  to  a 
difcourfe  on  the  organs  of  hearing. 

Between  the  laft  defcribed  bones  and  the  fol-" 
lowing  bone  are  two  large  holes,  which  are  the 
eighth  foramina.  Through  thefe  holes  pafs  the 
eighth  pair  of  nerves  and  lateral  fmufes  ; fome- 
tlmes  they  are  two  on  each  fide,  one  for  the  nerve 
and  one  for  the  linus.  To  thefe  we  may  add  an- 
other very  fmall  one  on  each  fide,  through  which 
pafs  the  portiones  durae  of  the  auditory  nerves  ; 
and  fometimes  there  is  another  for  an  artery. 

Os  occipitis  makes  all  the  back  part  of  the 
fcull  : it  is  bounded  by  the  fphenoidal,  temporal, 
petrofal,  and  parietal  bones  ; it  has  two  fmall 
apophyfes,  by  which  it  is  articulated  to  the  fpine ; 
near  thofe  apophyfes  are  two  fmall  foramina, 
which  are  the  ninth  of  the  fcull  ; through  thefe 
pafs  the  ninth  pair  of  nerves  ; and  between  thefe 
is  the  great  or  tenth  foramen,  through  which  the 
medulla  oblongata  defcends  into  the  fpine,  the  cer- 
vical arteries  enter,  and  the  cervical  veins  pafs  out. 
In  the  infide  of  this  bone  is  a crucial  fpine  im- 
preffed  by  the  longitudinal  and  lateral  flnufes  : 
and  on  the  outlide,  oppofite  to  the  middle  of  this 
fpine,  in  fome  bodies,  is  an  apophyfis,  and  from 
that  down  to  the  great  foramen  a fmall  thin  fpine. 
The  fpines  in  this  bone  are  of  the  fame  ufe  with 
thofe  in  the  os  frontis,  &c.  viz.  to  ftrengthen  it. 

The 


OF  THE  C R A N I U M.  17 

The  thinner  parts  of  this  bone  are  alfo  defended  by 
the  mufcles  that  cover  them  ; which  provificn  is 
very  necelTary,  becaufe  we  can  leaft  defend  this 
part,  and  blows  here  are  of  worfe  conlequence  than 
on  any  other  part  of  the  fcull,  becaufe  wounds  in 
the  cerebellum,  which  is  underneath,  are  mortal. 
There  are  in  moll  fculls  a foramen  behind  each 
apophyfis  of  the  occipital  bone  ; through  which 
pafs  finufes  from  the  lateral  finufes  to  the  external 
cervical  veins  : By  means  of  thefe  communications, 
as  in  all  other  communications  of  the  finufes,  the 
blood  paffes  from  thofe  that  happen  to  be  fur- 
charged  by  any  pofture  of  the  head,  into  thof? 
that  from  the  fame  pofture  would  have  been  al- 
moft  empty.  Such  fculls  as  want  thefe  foramina 
have  two  finufes  for  the  fame  purpofe. 


CHAP.  II. 


Of  the  Bones  of  the  Face, 

Ossa  nail  make  the  upper  part  of  the  nofe  ; 
they  form  that  kind  of  arch  which  is  fitteft  to  fuf- 
tain  fuch  injuries  as  the  nofe  is  moft  expofed  to. 

Ofla  malarum.  Thefe  bones  compofe  the  an- 
terior, lov^er,  and  outer  parts  of  the  orbits  of  the 
eyes ; they  have  each  a Ihort  prccefs,  which  pro- 
cefs  joins  the  proceftiis  jugales  of  the  temporal 

bones. 


i8  Of  THE  BONES 

bones,  and  form  arches  which  have  been  called 
offa  jiigalia, 

Ofia  ungues  are  feated  immediately  below  the 
os  frontis  towards  the  nofe  in  the  orbits  of  the 
eyes ; whofe  anterior  and  inner  parts  they  help 
to  compofe  ; and  between  each  of  them  and  the 
upper  jaw  is  a foramin  as  large  as  a goofe  quill,  in- 
to which  the  pundta  lacrymalia  lead,  to  carry  off  any 
■fuperfiuous  moifture  from  the  eyes  into  the  nofe. 

Ofl'a  plana  are  feated  immediately  beyond  the 
foregoing  bones,  in  the  orbits  of  the  eyes,  and 
are  near  thrice  as  big.  They  are  rather  fmooth 
furfaces  of  the  os  fpongiofum,  than  diftind:  bones, 
and  are  very  often  imperfed. 

(^Maxilla  fuperior  is  always  defcribed  hngle, 
though  it  is  manifeftly  divided  by  a future  which 
is  fcarce  ever  obliterated ; it  has  two  proceffes, 
which  join  the  os  frontis,  and  make  part  of  the 
nofe  ; and  another,  which  joins  to  the  cartilage  of 
the  feptum  nafi.  its  upper  and  outward  parts  make 
the  lower  parts  of  the  orbits  of  the  eyes  ; its  lower 
fide,  all  that  part  of  the  face  under  the  cheeks, 
eyes,  and  nofe  to  the  mouth,  and  two  thirds  of  the 
roof  of  the  mouth.  A little  below  the  orbits  of  the 
eyes,  in  this  bone,  are  tv/o  holes,  and  behind  the 
dentes  incifores  one  more,  which  divides  into  two, 
as  ir  opens  into  the  nofe,  on  each  fide  of  the  fep- 
tum nafi.  Between  the  poilerior  grinding-teeth 
and  the  orbits  of  the  eyes  are  two  great  finufes, 
called  antra  maxilla  fuperioris,  v/hich  open  in  the 

Mppe; 


OF  THE  FACE. 


19 

upper  part  of  the  nofe.  And  in  the  lower  edge  of 
this  jaw  are  the  alveoli,  or  fockets  for  the  teeth. 
Part  of  the  fides  of  thefe  cavities,  that  lie  next  the 
nofe,  are  only  membranes  which  make  the  cavities 
like  drums,  perhaps  to  give  a grave  found  to  the 
voice  when  we  let  part  of  it  through  the  nofe ; 
but  brutes  not  needing  fuch  variety  of  founds,  have 
thefe  cavities  onen  to  the  nofe,  and  filled  wi:h  la- 
mellse,  which  are  covered  with  membranes,  in 
which  the  olfaffory  nerves  terminate,  for  a more 
exquifite  fenfe  of  fuelling  than  is  neceflary  for 
men.  1 Impofthumations  fometimiCS  happen  in 
thefe^avities : The  figns  of  this  difeafe  are,  great 
pain  about  the  part,  matter  in  the  nofe  on  the  fide 
difeafed,  ft  inking  breath,  and  rotten  teeth.  Mr. 
CowPER  firft  defcribed  this  cafe,  and  the  cure  ; 
which  is  performed  by  drawing  out  the  laft  tooth 
but  one,  or  two,  or  m.ore  if  rotten  ; and  through 
their  fockets  making  a perforation,  into  the  antrum ; 
or  if  drawing  a tooth  makes  a perforation,  which 
fometimes  happens,  and  perhaps  gave  the  firft  hint 
of  this  cure,  then  that  opening  muft  be  enlarged, 
if  it  is  not  fufticient  to  difcharge  the  matter. 

OiTa  Palati  are  two  fmall  bones  that  m.ake 
the  back  part  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and  a fnali 
part  of  the  bottom  of  each  orbit.  Between  the  offa 
palati  and  os  maxillare  near  the  pterygoid  proceffes 
of  the  fphenoidal  bone,  are  two  fmall  foramina, 
through  which  arteries  and  nerves  pafs  to  the  pal- 
ate. 


20 


Of  the  B O Tvf  E S 


Os  Vomer  is  feated  between  the  bones  of  the 
palate,  and  the  fphenoidal  bone.  It  is  alfo  joined  to 
the  procei's  of  the  ethmoides,  and  part  of  the  low- 
er jaw.  Its  fore  part  is  fpongy,  and  is  continued 
to  the  middle  cartilage  of  the  nofe.  This  bone 
and  cartilage  are  the  fcptum  nafi. 

Os  fpongiofum  is  ufually  treated  as  a diftindt 
bone,  though  it  is  only  the  fpongy  laminse  in  the 
nofe,  of  the  os  ethmoides  and  oITa  plana,  but  chiefly 
of  the  os  ethmoides,  to  which  it  always  adheres. 
In  ccnfidering  thefe  lamellse  as  a diflind  bone,  we 
follow  the  ancients,  who  did  not  diftinguifn  the 
bones  of  the  fcull  only,  as  they  are  divided  by  fu- 
tures, but  according  to  the  differences  of  their  tex- 
ture, figure,  fituation,  or  life.  Thus  they  called 
thefe  parts  os  fpongiofum  ; a procefs  of  the  tempo- 
ral bone,  joined  to  the  os  m.alse,  os  jugale,  &c. 

Maxilla  inferior  is  articulated  with  loofe  car- 
tilages to  the  temporal  bones,  by  two  proceflTes, 
named  condyloides.  Near  thefe  arife  two  more, 
called  coronales,  and  at  the  infide  of  the  chin  a 
fmall  rough  procelfus  innominatus.  In  the  infide 
of  this  bone,  under  each  procelfus  coronalis,  is  a 
large  foramdn^  which  runs  under  the  teeth,  and 
pafies  out  near  the  chin.  In  this  foramen,  the  vef- 
fels  pafs  that  belong  to  the  teeth  ; and  in  the  upper 
edge  of  this  jav/  are  the  fockets  for  the  teeth,  rvhich 
feldoni  exceed  fixteen  in  each  jaw  ; the  four  firfl; 
in  each  are  called  incifores,  the  two  next  canini, 
the  reft  molares  ; the  four  laft  of  thefe  are  named 

dentes 


OF  THE  FACE. 


21 


dentes  fapientise,  becaufe  they  do  not  appear  till 
men  arrive  at  years  of  difcretion.  The  incifores  and 
canini  have  only  one  fmgle  root,  but  the  molares 
more  ; the  eight  firft,  two  ; and  the  reft,  fome  three, 
fome  four,  efpecially  in  the  upper  jaw  ; where  alfo 
they  are  fpread  wider,  becaufe  that  jaw  being  more 
fpongy  than  the  other,  the  teeth  need  more  fpace 
to  fix  them-  Each  of  thefe  roots  has  a foramen, 
through  which  pafs  an  artery,  vein,  and  nerve, 
which  are  expanded  in  a fine  membrane  that  lines 
the  cavity  in  each  tooth.  Thefe  veflels  and  mem- 
brane are  the  feat  of  the  tooth-acher^  The  teeth  of 
children  call  off  while  they  are  growing  ; but  the 
fucceeding  teeth  arife  in  new  fcckets,  deeper  and 
larger  than  the  form.er,  for  the  jaws  increafing  faft- 
er  than  the  teeth,  muft  otherwife  have  left  chafms 
between  them,  fuch  as  are  in  the  miouths  of  brutes  ; 
but  where  teeth  are  drawn  in  adult  bodies,  the 
fcckets  clofe,  and  new  ones  very  rarely  lucceed. 


CHAP.  III. 

Of  the  Bones  of  the  Trunk. 

1 HE  bones  of  the  trunk  are  thofe  which  com- 
pofe  the  fpine  or  chain  of  bones  from  the  head 
dov.m  to  the  rump,  the  ribs  and  fternum,  to  which 
may  juftly  be  added  the  offa  innominata. 

The  fpine  is  compofed  of  twenty-four  vertebras 
(each  of  which  in  a young  child  is  three  bones) 

befides 


22 


Of  the  bones 


befides  thofe  of  the  os  facrum  and  coccygis  ; fevea 
belong  to  the  neck,  the  firft  of  which  is  called  at- 
las, becaufe  it  immediately  fupports  the  head  ; its 
upper  fide  has  two  cavities,  into  which  the  apo*‘ 
phyfes  of  the  os  occipitis  are  received  ; but  thefe 


laterally  portions  of  concentric  circles,  by  which 
means  they  are  but  as  one  joint,  and  fo  fuffer  the 
head  to  move  eafily  fide-ways,  which  otherwife  it 
could  no  more  do  than  the  knee,  which  alfo  has 
two  heads  and  two  cavities.  The  under  fide  of 
this  bone  has  a very  flat  articulation  with  the  next, 
which  fits  it  for  a rotatory  motion.  The  fecond 
vertebra  is  called  dentata,  or  axis,  from  a procefs 
which  palfes  through  the  former  bone,  and  is  the 
axis  upon  which  it  turns  ; neverthelefs  all  the  ver- 
tebrsE  of  the  neck  contribute  fomething  to  the  rota- 
tory motion  of  the  head.  The  proceffus  dentatus 
is  ftrongly  tied  to  the  os  occipitis,  and  to  the  atlas 
by  ligaments  to  prevent  its  hurting  the  fpinal 
marrow.  Twelve  of  which  belong  to  the  back, 
five  to  the  loins.  The  os  facrum  is  fometimes  five, 
fometims  fix  bones,  and  the  os  occygis  four.  If 
this  chain  had  been  compofed  of  fewer  bones, 
they  mufh  have  either  not  been  capable  of  bending 
fo  much  as  they  do,  or  have  bent  more  in  each 
joint,  which  would  have  prelfed  the  fpinal  mar- 
row, the  ill  confequences  of  which  are  fufficient- 
]y  fecn  in  perfons  grown  crooked,  or  who  have 
had  diftortions  from  external  accide 


two  cavities  together,  unlike  all  other  joints,  are 


The 


OF  THE  TRUNK. 


The  uppermoft  vertebras  of  the  neck  being 
fixed  behind  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  head,  the 
neck  is  therefore  fo  far  bent  forward,  as  that  the 
laft  of  thefe  vertebras  (which  has  a firm  bearing 
upon  thefe  of  the  thorax)  may  be  exactly  under 
the  centre  of  gravity.  Thofe  of  the  thorax  are 
bent  backwards,  behind  the  center  of  motion,  to 
make  room  for  the  parts  contained  in  the  thorax  ; 
and  that  they  might  not  be  made  too  weak  by  the 
ftruftiire,  they  are  formed  for  lefs  motion  than 
other  vertebras  ; and  thofe  in  particular,  which  are 
bent  fartheft  from  the  centre  of  gravity  have  the 
leaft  motion.  The  middle  vertebrae  of  the  loins 
are  again  bent  forwards  under  the  centre  of  grav- 
ity, or  near  it ; and  from  thence  they  go  back- 
wards to  the  os  facrum,  where  being  fixed  to  the 
ofl'a  innominata  behind  the  centre  of  gravity,  the 
articulation  is  therefore  firm  and  without  motion, 
and  from  thence  the  offa  innominata  are  fo  form- 
ed, as  that  their  fockets,  into  which  the  thigh 
bones  are  fixed,  where  there  is  a free  motion,  arc^ 
exactly  under  the  centre  of  gravity.  In  brutes 
the  fpine  is  differently  formed,  according  to  the 
adtions  for  which  they  are  defigned. 

(Lin  all  thefe  vertebra,  except  the  firft,  is  a mid- 
dle anterior  fpongy  body,  by  which  they  are  firmly 
articulated  with  a very  ftrong  intervening  liga- 
ment j and  from  the  middle  of  the  hind  part  of 
each,  except  the  firff,  ftands  a procefs  named  fpi- 
nalis,  and  from  every  one  a procefs  on  each  fide, 

called 


24 


Of  the  bones 


called  tranfverfalis,  and  two  fuperior,  and  two  in- 
ferior fliort  ones  ; by  which  the  back  parts  of  the 
vertebrse  are  articulated,  named  obliqui,  fuperiores, 
and  inferiores.  ^ 

The  fore  part  of  the  feven  vertebrae  of  the 
neck,  and  two  upper  of  the  back,  are  flat  for- 
wards, to  make  room  for  the  afpera  arteria  an- 
gula  : The  third  and  fourth  of  the  back  acute,  to 
give  way  to  the  veffels  of  the  lungs  and  heart,  and 
bent  to  the  right  fide  for  the  better  fituation  of 
the  heart,  which  makes  that  fide  of  the  bread; 
more  convex  than  the  other,  and  therefore  ilrong- 
er  ; which  feems  advantageous  to  the  right  arm, 
its  motions  depending  upon  the  fupport  it  receives 
from  the  bread;.  Hence,  I think,  it  feems,  that 
the  almoffc  univerfal  preference  of  that  arm  is  not 
an  arbitrary  thing,  but  founded  upon  obfervation, 
that  it  is  capable  of  more  perfed;  adions  than  the 
other. 

The  fpinal  precedes  of  the  fecond,  third,  fourth, 
and  fifth  vertebrse  of  the  neck  are  forked,  the  two 
lafc  long  and  horizontal,  the  three  or  four  upper 
ones  of  the  back  like  them,  only  a little  declining, 
the  middle  ones  of  the  back  run  obliquely  down- 
wards, and  the  procefl'es  of  the  remaining  vertebrte 
become  fuccefllvely  thicker,  fl;ronger,  and  lefs  de- 
clining ; thofe  of  the  loins  being  horizontal,  like 
the  laft  of  the  neck.  The  mufcles,  that  are  inferted 
into  the  fpinal  procefies  of  the  vertebra;  of  the 
neck  and  loins  will  ad  with  more  ftrength  than  thofe 

of 


OF  THE  TRUNK. 


25 

of  the  back,  becaufe  their  procefies  being  perpendic- 
ular to  the  fpine,  they  are  longer  leavers  : befides, 
thofe  of  the  back  aimoft  touch  one  another,  to  pre- 
vent much  motion,  becaufe  it  would  interrupt  ref- 
piration  ; but  more  motion  being  neceffary  in  the 
neck  and  loins,  their  procefies  are  made  fit  for  it. 

The  tranfverfe  procefTes  of  the  vertebrae  of  the 
neck  are  perforated,  for  the  admilfion  of  the  cer- 
vical blood  veifels,  and  bowed  downwards,  and 
hollowed,  for  the  paflages  of  the  cervical  nerves. 
The  eight  or  nine  upper  ones  of  the  back  receive 
the  upper  ribs  ; and  the  reft,  with  thofe  of  the 
loins,  ferve  only  for  origins  and  infertions  of  muf- 
cles. 

Os  facrum  has  two  upper  oblique  procefTes, 
fome  fmall  fpinal  procefies,  and  two  foramina  in 
each  interftice  of  the  bones  it  is  compofed  of,  ,both 
before  and  behind.  OlTa  coccygis  have  none  of 
thefe  parts. 

yJThrough  every  bone  of  the  fpine,  the  oiTa 
coccygis  excepted,  is  a large  foramen,  which  to- 
gether make  a channel  through  the  fpine,  in  which 
is  contained  the  medulla  fpinalis  ; and  in  each 
fpace  between  the  vertebrss  are  two  large  holes  for 
the  nerves  to  pafs  out.J 

It  is  worth  confidering  the  provifion  v/hich  is 
made  to  prevent  luxations  in  this  chain  of  bones, 
inch  luxations  being  wcrfe  than  any  other,  becaufe 
of  the  fpinal  marrov/  which  is  contained  within  thefe 
bones.  The  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  are  all  in  the 
C fame 


Oi-  THE  BONES 


feme  manner  connected  by  itrong  intervening  liga» 
ments  or  cartilages.  In  the  neck  the  oblique  pro- 
celFes  of  the  received  bone  are  wrapped  over  thofe 
of  the  receiving  bone,  which  forbids  their  luxating, 
forwards.  The  tranfverfe  procelfes,  with  a fmall 
apophyfis  of  the  body  of  the  fame  bone,  in  like 
manner,  fecure  them  from  flipping  backwards ; 
and  an  apophyfis  on  each  fide  of  the  body  of  the 
receiving  bone, hinders  them  from  flipping  to  either 
fide.  The  vertebrae  of  the  back  are  hindered  from 
dillocating  forwards  by  the  fame  provifion  with 
thofe  of  the  neck;  and  from  luxating  backwards,, 
by  the  ribs  which  are  fafiened  to  the  tranfverfe  pro- 
cefibs  of  the  inferior  vertebrae,  and  againft  the  back 
part  of  the  body  of  the  next  fuperior  ; they  alfo 
hinder  them  from  diflocating  to  either  fide ; but 
the  laft  ribs  are  not  fixed  to  the  tranfverfe  procefles. 
of  the  vertebra!  of  the  back,  and  therefore  it  is  that 
luxations  are  moft  frequently  feen  in  this  part ; but 
the  vertebras  of  the  loins  are  received  into  deep 
cavities,  and  are  tied  rvith  much  ftronger  ligaments 
for  their  fecurity.  Each  joint  of  the  vertebim,  ex- 
cept the  two  uppermofi,  has  two  centres  of  mo- 
tion, one  upon  the  bodies  of  the  vertebra!,  when 
the  trunk  is  bowed  forward ; and  the  other  at  the. 
articulations  of  the  oblique  procelies,  when  the 
body  is  bowed  backvrards ; from  v^hich  ftruflurc 
the  extenfors  will  have  about  twice  the  leaver  to. 
ddi  with.,  and  conlecjuently  twice  the  power  to  raife 
the  trunk  into  an  ereft  pofiurc,  that  they  have  to 

carry 


OF  THE  TRUNK. 


27 

carry  it  beyond  that  pofture : for  then  the  oblique 
procelTes  begin  to  be  the  centre  of  motion,  and  give 
a like  advantage  to  the  benders.  Without  this  con- 
trivance it  would  be  more  difficult  to  keep  the  body 
ere<£t,  or  to  recover  an  ere£i:  pofture  with  confider- 
able  ftrength  after  a bend  of  the  body. 

^The  ribs  are  twelve  in  number  on  each  fide  ; 
the  feven  uppermoft  are  called  true  ribs,  becaufe 
their  cartilages  reacK  the  fternum  ; and  the  five 
loweft  are  called  baftard  ribs.  They  are  auic-ubted 
to  the  bodies  of  the  twelve  vertebras  of  the  back, 
and  all,  except  the  two  or  three  laft,  are  articu- 
lated to  their  tranfverfe  procefles,  and  the  under 
fide  of  the  middle  ribs  are  hollowed  for  the  paflage 
of  the  intercoftal  veffels.  They  defend  the  p arts 
contained  in  the  breaft,  and  when  they  are  drawn 
upwards,  the  cavity  of  the  breaft  is  enlarged  for 
infpiration,  and  fo  the  contrary.  In  two  children, 
which  I have  differed,  I found  the  ribs  broke  in- 
wards, and  on  the  outfide  a very  plain  print  of  a 
thumb  and  fingers,  occafioned  by  their  nurfes  tak- 
ing hold  of  their  breafts,  and  hoifting  them  up  on 
one  hand,  which  being  often  repeated,  had  broke 
the  ribs  inwards  like  a green  ftick,  without  feparat- 
ing  the  broken  ends  of  them.  I have  alfo  very  fre- 
quently feen  the  ffiape  of  children’s  breafts  quite 
ipoiied  by  fuch  tricks,  which  have  occafioned  weak- 
nefs  of  body,  crookednefs,  and  other  difeafes. 

^Stei  *num,  or  breaft-bone,  is  generally  made  up 
of  three  ipongy  bones,  fometimes  more  j to  this  the 
C 2 two 


2$ 


Of  the  bones 


two  ribs  are  articulated  by  their  cartilages,  which 
fometimes  in  robuft  men  have  moveable  joints', 
fuch  as  are  feen  in  oxen  and  other  quadrupeds. 
At  the  end  of  the  fternum  is  the  cartilago  enfifor- 
mis  J fo  called  from  its  fbape,  but  it  very  often  is 
double  ; there  is  alfo  frequently  found  variety  in 
the  form  of  the  cartilages,  v/hich  join  the  ribs  and 
fternum  ; fometimes  one  cartilage  ferving  two  ribs, 
and  fometimes  a cartilage  not  joined  to  any  rib  ; 
frequently  in  old  perfons  we  imd  parts  of  them  of- 
fified,  and  I have  twice  found  them  totally  oftified 
in  men  between  forty  and  fifty  years  of  age,  both 
of  which  died  'with  a great  difficulty  of  breathing ; 
and  befides,  one  had  a jaundice,  and  the  other  a 
dropfy,  but  the  lungs  in  both  were  very  found. 

^"here  are  feldom  found  fewer  than  four  and 
twenty  vertebrse  in  the  fpine,  befides  the  os  facrum, 
but  often  mere ; fometimes  thirteen  of  the  back, 
with  as  many  ribs  of  a fide  ; and  fometimes  fix  in 
the  loin-vS,  and  in  fomc  bodies  two  ribs  from  the  firft 
vertebra  of  the  loins,,  but  then  it  has  wanted  tranf- 
verfe  proceffes.  ^ 

Los  Innominatum  is  in  young  perfons  compos- 
ed of  three  bones;  the  upper  is  named  ilium, 
the  lower  and  pofterior  os  ifehii,  and  the  anterior 
ns  bubis ; the  upper  edge  of  the  ilium  is  called  its 
fpine,  the  anterior  part  of  the  fpine  its  apex,  and  a 
little  lower  is  the  procefles  innominatus.  Ilium 
has  two  procefl'us,  the  one  named  the  obtufe  pro- 
cefs-,  and  the  other  the  acute ; in  the  centre  of 

thefe 


OF  THE  TRUNK. 


29 

Ijhefe  bones  is  the  acetabulum  or  focket  for  the 
thigh  bone  ; in  the  bottom  of  which  focket  is  an- 
other cavity,  in  which  lies  the  lubricating  gland  of 
this  joint^  When  impofaimations  happen  in  this 
joint  they  ufually  caufe  a great  fwelling  and  lame- 
nefs  in  the  hip,  which,  in  time,  makes  a collection 
of  matter  in  the  external  part  of  the  hip';  how- 
ever, this  is  not  the  only  way  it  proceeds,  for  I 
have  twice  feen  the  matter  in  the  joint  make  way 
through  the  bottom  of  the  acetabulum  into  the  pel- 
vis of  the  abdomen  ; in  thefe  cafes,  when  the  pa- 
tient went  to  ftool,  the  matter,  by  ftraining,  was 
prefled  out  through  the  external  wmund. 

CHAP.  IV. 

Bones  of  the  Upper  Limb. 
Clavicula  is  connected  at  one  end  to  the 

fternum  with  a loofe  cartilage,  and  at  the  other 
to  the  procelTus  acromion  of  the  fcapula  ; its 
chief  ufe  is  to  keep  the  fcapula  a fufficient  diftance 
from  the  breaft,  by  which  means  the  fhoulders  are 
liindered  from  coming  near  together,  as  they  do  in 
thofe  quadrupeds  which  ufe  their  fore  limbs  only 
to  walk  on,  and  not  as  men  do  their  hands. 

Scapula  is  fixed  to  the  fternum  by  the  clavi- 
cul^  but*  its  chief  connexion  is  to  the  ribs  and 

fpinGj 


B O N E S OF  THE 


30 

fpine,  by  thofe  mufcles  which  are  made  alfo  for  its 
various  motions  ; and  in  fuch  quadrupeds  as  have 
no  clavicles  it  is  fixed  only  by  mufcles,  whofe 
actions  give  to  this  bone  a great  deal  of  that  mo- 
tion which  feems  to  be  in  the  joint  of  the  fhoulder. 
The  under  fide  of  this  bone  is  a little  concave, 
partly  to  fit  to  the  outer  furface  of  the  ribs  on 
which  it  moves,  and  partly  to  give  room  for  the 
fub-fcapularis  mufcle.  On  the  outfide  arifes  a 
large  fpine  ; the  fore  part  of  which  is  called  the 
proceflus  acromion,  to  which  the  clavicula  is  fixed. 
In  men  and  fuch  quadrupeds  as  have  clavicles,  and 
ufe  their  fore  limbs  like  arms,  this  procefs  and 
fpine  are  much  larger  and  more  prominent,  not 
only  for  the  better  fixing  the  clavicle,  but  alfo  to 
remove  the  mufcles  farther  from  the  centre  of 
motion,  whereby  they  are  able  to  move  a greater 
weight.  Near  this  procefs  is  another  called  cora- 
coides,  from  whofe  extremity,  with  like  advan- 
tage, arife  two  mufcles  of  the  arm  ; this  procefs 
with  the  former  and  a .fiat  ligament  between  them 
both,  hinder  the  os  humeri  from  being  diflocated 
upwards.  The  fide  oppofite  to  the  focket  is  called 
the  bafis  of  the  fcapula,  and  the  lower  edge  cofia 
inferior  from  its  figure,  which  is  thick,  and  like  a 
rib  to  the  fcapula  ; but  its  upper  edge  being  very 
thin,  is  improperly  fo  called  in  the  human  "fkele- 
ton,  though  not  fo  in  many  quadrupeds.  At  the 
fore  part  of  this  edge,  ciofe  to  the  coracoid  pro- 
cefs, is  a femicircular  nich  lof  the  paiTage  of  bfood 

veffeis, 


UPPER  LIMB.  31 

veflels,  which  nich  is  joined  at  top  vrith  a ligament, 
and  fometimes  with  bone. 

■ Os  humeri : its  upper  end  or  head,  where  it  is 
joined  to  the  fcapula,  is  fomewhat  flat,  -and  much 
larger  than  the  focket  which  receives  it.  At  the 
upper  part  are  two  procefles  for  the  infertions  of 
mufcles  of  the  arms  ; between  thefe  procefles  is  a 
long  channel,  in  which  lies  a tendon  of  the  bifeps 
■cubiti.  At  the  lower  end  are  two  confiderable 
procelTes,  both  formed  to  give  origins  to  muicles 
■of  the  wrifc  and  fingers  j and  the  flexors  of  thefe 
joints  being  much  more  confiderable  than  the  ex- 
tenfors,  the  inner  procefs  from  which  the  flexors 
arife  is  therefore  much  larger  than  the  outer,  from 
which  the  extenfors  take  their  origins  : between 
thefe  proceflTes  is  the  joint.  That  part  to  which 
the  upper  end  of  the  radius  is  fixed,  is  fitted  not 
only  for  the  motion  of  the  elbow,  but  alfo  for  the 
rotatory  motion  of  the  radius  ; the  reft  of  tliis 
joint  is  made  of  portions  of  unequal,  but  concen- 
tric circles,  like  the  flianks  of  quadrupeds  ; which 
inequality  prevents  the  ulna  from  diflocating  fide- 
ways,  which  ,fo  fmall  a joint  tvith  fo  much  motion 
would  be  very  fubje<ft  to.  Of  a like  ufeis  the  little 
finus  on  the  fore  part  of  tire  humerus,  and  the  large 
one  behind  ; tlie  firft  of  wdiich  receives  a procefs  of 
the  ulna  when  the  arm  is  bent,  and  tlie  other,  the 
olecranon,  when  the  arm  is  extended. 

Ulna  ; at  tlie  upper  end  it  has  one  large  pro- 
cefs called  olecranon,  and  a fmall  procefs  on  the 

fore 


BONES  OF  THE 


32 

fore  part ; and  on  one  fide  between  thefe  is  alfo 
a fmall  cavity,  which  receives  the  upper  end  of 
the  radius  for  its  rotatory  motion ; and  down  the 
fide  of  this  bone,  next  the  radius,  is  a lharp  edge, 
from  which  the  ligament  arifes,  which  connects 
thofe  bones  together.  At  the  lower  end  is  a pro- 
cefs,  called  ftyliformis,  and  a round  head,  which  is 
received  into  the  radius  for  the  rotatory  motion  of 
the  cubit. 

Radius  : its  upper  end  is  received  into  the  ulna, 
and  joined  to  the  humerus,  in  a manner  chiefly 
fitted  for  its  rotatory  motion,  for  the  hrength  of  the 
elbow  joint  receives  but  little  advantage  from  the 
union  of  thefe  two  bones.  A little  below  this 
head  is  a large  tubercle,  into  which  the  biceps 
mufcle  is  inferted,  which  by  the  advantage  of  this 
infertion  turns  the  cubit  fupine,  as  well  as  bends  it. 
At  the  lov/er  end,  which  is  thicker,  is  a focket  to  re- 
ceive the  carpus,  and  at  the  fide  next  the  ulna  a 
fmall  one  to  receive  that  bone,  and  a thin  edge,  into 
which  the  tranfverfe  ligament,  which  arifes  from 
the  ulna,  is  inferted.  This  ligament  ties  thefe  bones 
conveniently  and  firmly  together  : for  the  ulna  being 
chiefly  articulated  to  the  os  humeri,  and  the  radius 
to  the  carpus,  a weight  at  the  hand,  without  this 
ligament,  would  be  liable  to  pull  thefe  bones 
afunder. 

Of  the  bones  of  the  hand  : Carpus  is  compofed 
of  eight  bones  of  very  irregular  forms,  undoubted- 
ly the  propereft  that  dah  be  ; yet  why  in  thefe 

' forms 


UPPER  LIMB. 


33 


forms,  rather  than  any  other,  no  one  has  been 
able  to  fhew.  They  have  all  obfcure  motions  one 
with  another,  and  with  thofe  of  the  metacarpus  ; 
but  the  motion  of  thofe  of  the  firit  rank,  or  or- 
der, with  thofe  of  the  fecond  is  more  confiderable, 
and  are  moved  by  the  fame  mufcles  which  move 
the  carpus  on  the  radius.  The  metacarpus  con- 
fifts  of  four  bones  which  fuftain  the  fingers  ; that 
of  the  fore-finger  having  the  leaft  motion,  and 
that  of  the  little  one  the  mofl; ; the  other  ends  of 
thefe  bones  have  round  heads  for  the  articulations 
of  the  fingers  ; but  the  other  joints  of  the  fingers 
double  heads  and  fockets.  The  thumb  is  fhorter 
and  flronger  than  any  of  the  fingers,  becaufe  in 
its  actions  it  is  to  refill  them  all.  The  firfl;  joint 
is  very  fingular,  each  bone  receiving  and  being 
equally  received.  The  bones  of  the  fingers  on 
the  infide  are  flat  and  a little  hollow,  wmich  is  nec- 
effary  to  make  room  for  the  flexors  of  the  fingers, 
and  to  render  their  fhape  proper  for  grafping  ; 
but  this  leffening  their  diameters,  and  confequent- 
ly  weakening  them  in  the  diredlion  in  w'^hich  they 
are  moft  liable  to  be  broke,  fuch  inconvenience  k 
provided  againfl:  by  a larger  fubftance. 


C H A P. 


34 


BONES  OF  THE 


CHAP.  V. 

f 

Bones  of  the  lower  Limb. 

O S Femofls  at  its  upper  end  has  a round  head 
which  is  received  into  the  focket  of  the  os  in- 
nominatum.  In  mof}:  quadrupeds  this  head  is  ob- 
long, and  makes  a firmer  articulation  j but  that 
fhape  will  not  allow  of  fo  much  motion  as  a round- 
er head.  The  two  procefl'es  near  the  head  are  call- 
ed the  greater  and  lelfer  trochanters,  which  are 
evidently  formed  for  the  infertion  of  mufcles,  as 
tlie  neck  which  lies  between  thefe  and  the  head,  is 
formed  to  make  room  for  that  neceiraiy  quantity  of 
mufcles  tvhich  are  feated  on  the  infide  of  the 
thigh,  and  alfo  by  projecting  outwards  to  make 
long  levers  for  the  mufcles,  wliich  are  inferted 
into  its  upper  and  external  parts.  Between  the 
great  trochanter  and  the  neck  is  a large  finus,  into 
vrhich  mufcles  are  inferted  : between  the  two  tro- 
chanters is  a remarkable  roughnefs  for  the  fame  ufc, 
from  which  begins  the  linea  afpera.  The  middle 
of  this  bone,  for  the  conveniency  of  the  mufcles, 
is  bent  forwards,  which  would  make  it  fubjed:  to 
break  backwards,  if  there  was  not  a ftrong  ridge 
on  the  back  fide,  which  ftrengthens  it  fufficiently, 
and  ferves  alfo  for  advantageous  infertions  for  fev- 
eral  mufcles ; this  ridge  is  called  the  linea  afpera.  ■ 
At  the  lower  end  of  this  bone  are  two  large  heads, 

called 


LOWER  LIMB. 


35 

called  the  outer  and  inner  apophyl'es  : thefe  are  fo 
contrived,  partly  from  being  projected  backwards, 
and  partly  from  their  fhapes,  as  to  remove  the  cen- 
tre of  motion  very  far  behind  the  axis  of  the  bone, 
which  gives  great  power  to  the  mufcles  that  ex- 
tend this  joint  to  raife  the  whole  weight  of  the 
body,  though  it  lelfens  the  power  of  the  benders 
which  move  the  leg  only  ; between  thefe  pro- 
ceffes  the  large  veli'els  defcend  fecurely  to  the  leg. 

Patella  is  feated  on  the  fore  part  of  the  knee  ; 
its  firft  appearance  is  in  the  centre  of  the  tendon, 
through  which  it  foon  extends,  until  the  tendinous 
fibres  are  loft,  and  appear  to  be  converted  into 
bone  ; however,  when  this  bone  is  broke,  the  orig- 
inal tendinous  fibres  feem  to  prevail,  feeing  the 
broke^  parts,  unlike  all  other  bones  when  frac- 
tured, unite  with  a tendon-like  fubftance,  which 
is  rarely  converted  into  bone,  and  efpecially  in 
thofe  cafes  where  the  joint  recovers  with  moft 
motion : its  ufe  is  to  fecure  the  extenfors  of  the 
tibia, , left,  pafling  over  the  joint,  they  might  be 
too  much  expofed  to  external  Injuries ; it  alfo  in- 
cfeafes  the  advantage  (mentioned  in  the  laft  para- 
graph) of  removing  the  common  axis  of  the  exten- 
fors of  the  tibia  farther  from  the  centre  of  motiq|;i, 
and  is  a moft  convenient  medium  for  thofe  muf- 
cles to  unite  in,  to  perform  one  common  acftion. 

Tibia,  the  ftiin  bone,  is  large  at  its  upper  end, 
where  are  two  fnallow  fockets  which  receive  the 
thigh  bone  ; between  thefe  is  a rough  procefs,  to 

which 


BONES  OF  THE 


36 

which  the  crofs  ligaments  of  this  joint  are  con- 
nefted.  Near  the  upper  end  is  a procefs,  into 
which  the  ligament  or  tendon  of  the  patella  is  in- 
ferted,  and  at  the  lower  end  is  the  procefs,  which 
makes  the  inner  ancle,  and  fecures  this  bone  from 
diflocating  outwards.  Towards  the  upper  end 
this  bone  is  triangular,  and  even  concave  on  the 
lide  next  the  mufcles  to  make  room  for  them  ; 
but  lower,  as  the  mufcles  grow  lefs  and  tendinous, 
the  bone  grows  rounder  ; that  being  upon  the 
whole  a ftronger  form  ; yet  it  is  not  made  fo 
ftrong  as  the  thigh  bone,  though  it  bears  a greater 
weight,  which  it  is  able  to  do  by  being  ftraighter, 
fhorter,  and  bearing  the  weight  of  the  body  in-  a 
more  perpendicular  diredlion. 

Fibula  is  feated  on  the  outfide  of  the  tibia  ; 
its  upper  end  is  joined  to  that  bone  below  the  joint 
of  the  knee,  and  its  lower  end  is  received  into  a 
lhaliow  fmus  of  the  fame  bone,  and  below  that 
makes  the  external  ancle  ; vrhich  procefs,  with  the 
procels  of  the  tibia,  ilrengthens  the  ancle  joint, 
which  neverthelefs,  being  fo  fmall,  would  have 
been  not  ftrong  enough,  if  it  had  been  made  for 
more  motion.  It  is  doubtful  to  me,  whether  or 
not  this  bone  contributes  to  the  fupport  of  the 
body  ; but  its  great  ufe  is  for  the  origins  of  mufcles, 
and  even  its  lhape  is  fuited  to  theirs. 

Of  the  bones  of  the  foot : Tarfus  is  compofed 
of  feven  bones,  the  firft  of  which,  called  aftraga- 
lus,  fupports  the  tibia,  and  is  fupported  by  the  os 

calcis, 


LOWER  LIMB. 


37 

calcls,  which  being  projeded  backwards,  makes  a 
long  lever  for  the  mufcles  to  ad  with,  that  extend 
the  ancle  and  raife  the  body  upon  the  toes.  Thefe 
two  bones  have  a confiderable  motion  between 
themfelves,  and  the  aftragalus  alfo  with  the  os  na- 
vic'ulare,  and  all  the  reft  an  obfcure  motion  one 
v/ith'  another,  and  with  the  bones  of  the  metatarfus, 
the  greateft  part  of  thefe  motions  being  towards 
the  great  toe,  where  is  the  greateft  ftrefs  of  adion  : 
thefe  bones  thus  giving  .way  are  lefs  liable  to  be 
broke,  and,  as  a fpring  under  the  leg,  make  thS  mo- 
tions of  the  body  in  walking  more  eafy  and  grace- 
ful, and  the  bones  which  are  fupported  by  them 
le^s  fubjed  to  be  fradured  in  violent  adions.  To 
thefe  join  five  others,  called  the  metatarfal  bones  ; 
that  which  fupports  the  great  toe  is  much  the  ia.rg- 
eft,  there  being  the  ..greateft  ftrefs  in  walking  ; 
under  the  end  of  this  lie  the  two  fefamoid  bones, 
which  are  of  the  farn  J^ufe  as  the  patella  ; the  great 
toe  has  two  bones,  the  leffcr  three  each,  the  two 
laft  of  the  leaft  toes  frequently  grow  together. 

Children  are  fometimes  born  wntli  their  feet 
turned  imvards,  fo  that  the  bottoni  of  the  foot  is 
upwards  : in  this  cafe  the  bones  of  the  tarfus,  like 
the  vertebrae  of  the  back  in  crooked  perfons,  are 
fafnioned  to  the  deformity.  The  nrft  knowledge 
I had  of  a cure  of  this  difeafe  was  from  Mr.  Pres- 
GROVE,  a profefled  bone-fetter,  then  living  in 
W eftminfter.  I recommended  the  patient  to  him, 
not  Know  ing  hcw’  to  cure  him  myfelf.  liis  way  was 

by 


BONES  OF  THE 


38 

by  holding  the  foot  as  near  the  natural  poflure  as 
he  could,  and  then  rolling  it  up  with  ftraps  of 
flicking  plafter,  which  he  repeated  from  time  to 
time,  as  he  faw  occafion,  until  the  limb  was  re- 
ftored  to  a natural  pofition,  but  not  without  fome 
imperfedlion,  the  bandage  wafting  the  leg,  and 
making  the  top  of  the  foot  fwell  and  grow  larger. 
After  this,  having  another  cafe  of  this  kind  under 
my  care,  I thought  of  a much  better  bandage,  which 
I had  learnt  from  Mr.  Cow  per,  a bone-fetter  at 
Leicefter,  who  fet  and  eured  a fra<fture  of  my 
own  cubit  when  I was  a boy  at  fchool.  His  way 
was,  after  putting  the  limb  in  a proper  poflure,  to 
wrap  it  up  in  wrags  dipped  in  the  whites  of  eggs, 
and  a little  w^heat  flower  mixed  ; this  drying,  grew 
ftiff,  and  kept  the  limb  in  a good  pofture.  And  I 
think  there  is  no  way  better  than  this  in  fractures, 
for  it  preferves  the  pofition  of  the  limb  without 
ftridl  bandage,  which  is  the  common  caufe  of 
mifchief  in  fractures.  When  I ufed  this  method 
to  the  crooked  foot,  I wrapt  up  the  limb  almoft 
from  the  knee  to  the  toes,  and  caufed  the  limb  to 
be  held  in  the  heft  pofture  till  the  bandage  grew 
ftifr,  and  repeated  the  bandage  once  a fortnight. 

The  bones  are  fubiedt  to  difeafes  from  all  the 
fame  caufes  that  the  other  parts  are,  but  either  from, 
their  hardnefs,  infenfibility,  or  other  caufes,  they 
neither  are  fo  frequently  difeafed,  nor  do  their  dif- 
eafes appear  fo  various  ; and  it  is  generally  of  more 
confequence  what  tcxtiure  the  difeafed  bone,  or  part 

of 

[ 


LOWER  LIMB. 


* 


39 

of  the  bone  is  of,  than  from  what  caufc  that  difeafe 
^ proceeded ; for  when  difeafes  happen  upon  the 
furfaces  of  the  hard  bones,  they  ufually  admit  a 
cure  by  exfoliation  j but  when  matter  is  made  in 
the  fpongy  ends  of  the  cylindrical  bones,  or  in  the 
bodies  of  other  fpongy  bones,  the  matter,  what- 
ever was  the  firfb  caufe,  infmuates  itfelf  through 
thofe  fpongy  cells,  fwelling  the  bone,  and  making 
generally  an  incurable  caries ; but  if  the  matter  is 
corrofive,  it  often  ulcerates  thefe  parts  ; and  ufually 
makes  fo  large  a difcharge  as  to  deftroy  the  patient 
where  the  part  difeafed  cannot  be  extirpated,  which 
is  often  the  cafe  when  matter  is  made  in  the  bones 
in  fcrophulous  habits. 

The  venereal  difeafe  rarely  attacks  any  but  the 
hardeft  parts  of  the  bones,  very  foon  raifmg-  large 
tumours  and  caries  or  mortification  ; but  thefe  cari- 
ous parts  -of  bones  from  this  or  other  caufes  are  but 
partially  mortified  ; for,  were  they  perfedly  fo,  the 
found  and  unfound  parts  would  feparate,  though  th.e 
integuments  were  not  taken  off ; whence  it  happens, 
that,  where  there  is  a good  habit  of  body,  carious 
bones  are  often  endured  many  years  without  much 
inconvenience  3 and  we  find  from  experience,  that 
fuch  reparations  are  not  to  be  made  till  the  difeafed 
part  is  laid  bare  and  perfedlly  mortified,  by  being 
expofed  to  the  air,  &c.  and  then  the  found  pait  un- 
derneath feparating  from  the  imfouncl,  there  firir 
granulates  a fungous  flefh-iike  appearance,  which 
• ought  never  to  be  treated  with  corrofive  medicines, 

it 


4° 


BONES  OF  THE 


it  conftantly  liirinklng  and  hardening  of  itfelf,  be- 
ing the  fame  fubftance  which  flioots  from  the  ends 
of  broken  bones,  where  alfo  it  foon  fhrinks  and 
converts  into  a callus  to  reunite  them. 

There  is  a caries  diftindt  from  thefe,  which  I 
have  only  feen  in  two  patients  who  died  after  a 
long  rheumatic  diforder,  in  which  the  outer  fur- 
face  of  all  the  hardeft  bones,  as  the  middle  of  the 
cylindrical  bones,  and  the  top  of  the  fcull,  in  one 
which  I boiled,  and  in  the  other  as  far  as  I was 
allowed  to  examine,  I found  the  outer  part  every 
where  crumbly  or  fcaly,  falling  into  pieces  like 
dull  or  fand,  with  very  little  appearance  of  tumour 
any  Avhere,  and  no  appearance  of  difeafe  in  the 
fpcngy  parts. 

Sometimes  matter  is  formed  in  the  large  me- 
dullary cavities  of  the  cylindrical  bones,  which  con- 
flantly  increafmg  and  wanting  vent,  partly  by  cor- 
roding and  rendering  the  bone  carious,  and  partly 
by  prelfure,  tear  afunder  the  ftrongeft  bone  in  an* 
biuman  body,  of  Avhich  I have  known  feveral  in- 
ftances.  In  one  cafe  where  the  matter  had  fuffic- 
ient  difcharge  by  an  external  caries  formed  together 
with  the  internal  one,  all  the  internal  hard  part  of 
the  bone  vrhich  contains  the  medulla  was  feparated 
from  the  reft  ; and  being  drawn  out  through  the 
place  where  the  external  carieshnade  a vent,  the  pa- 
tient received  a perfedh  cure.  In  another  cafe  of  this 
kind,  where  the  internal  part  which  contains  the 
medulla  wnas  alfo  feparated  from  the  reft,  and  there 

being 


LOWER  LIMB. 


4^ 

being  holes  through  which  the  matter  was  difcharg- 
ed,  but  none  fufncient  to  take  out  the  exfoliated 
bone  ; the  matter  continued  to  flow  in  great  quan- 
tity till  it  deftroyed  the  patient ; and  pofhbly,  if 
this  cafe  had  been  rightly  known,  the  internal  ex- 
foliated part  might  have  been  taken  out,  and  the 
patient  cured.  In  both  thefe  cafes,  it  feems  as  if 
only  fo  much  of  the  internal  part  of  the  bone  was 
become  carious,  as  receives  nourifhment  from  the 
artery  which  enters  the  middle  of  the  bone  ; and  as 
a caries  is  a mortification  of  a bone,  might  not  this 
difeafe  arife  from  a hurt  in  the  veffel  which  nouriflies 
that  particular  part  ? 


CHAP.  VI. 

Cartilages,  Ligaments,  &c. 

Every  part  of  a bone  which  is  articulated 
to  another  bone  for  motion,  is  covered  or  lin- 
ed with  a cartilage,  as  far  as  it  movk  upon,  or 
is  moved  upon  by  another  bone  in  any  aflion  ; for 
cartilage  being  fmoother  and  fofter  than  bone,  it 
renders  the  motions  more  eafy  than  they  would 
have  been,  and  prevents  the  bones  v.^earing  each 
other  in  their  actions. 

In  each  articulation  of  the  lower  jaw,  there  is  a 
loofe  cartilage,  upon  which  the  condyloid  procefs 
moves  on  one  fide,  while  the  jaw  is  moved  to  the 
D other  * 


42  CARTILAGES, 

other ; and  the  two  procefles  being  thus  railed  at 
once  ; the  jaw  is  thruft  forward.  Thefe  cartilages 
are  alfo  found  in  animals  that  chew  the  cud,  but 
not  in  beafts  of  prey,  as  far  as  I have  examined, 
their  articulations  being  alfo  deeper  and  firmer  ; and 
in  the  otter  particularly,  fedtions  of  the  fockets, 
which  receive  the  condyloid  proceffes  of  the  lower 
jaw,  are  more  than  half  circles  ; fo  that  the  jaw 
cannot  be  diflocated  diredtly  without  breaking  the 
fockets.  This  ftrudture  renders  the  motions  of  the 
jaw  more  firm,  as  that  with  intervening  cartilages 
makes  it  more  loofe  and  voluble.  There  are  alfo 
cartilages  of  this  kind  between  the  clavicles  and  the 
fternum. 

In  the  joint  of  the  knee  are  two  loofe,  almoft 
annular  cartilages,  which  being  thick  at  their  outer 
edges,  and  thin  at  their  inner  ones,  they  make  the 
greateft  parts  of  the  twm  fockets  in  this  joint.  The 
ufe  of  thefe  cartilages  is  to  make  variable  fockets  to 
fuit  the  different  parts  of  the  lower  end  of  the  os 
femoris  ; for  none  but  a round  head  and  a round 
cavity  can  fuit  in  motion,  unlefs  the  fhape  of  one 
or  the  other  alters  ; and  it  is  plainly  neceffary,  that 
this  lower  end  of  the  os  femoris  fhould  be  flattifh, 
and  projected  backward,  to  give  advantage  to  the 
mufcles  that  extend  the  tibia,  by  fetting  the  centre 
of  motion  backward : which  mechanifm,  though 
it  equally  leffens  the  power  of  thofe  mufcles  which 
bend  this  joint,  is  yet  of  great  fervice,  becaufe  the 
extending  mufcles  move  this  joint  under  the  weight 

of 


L I G A M E N T S,  &c.  43 

of  the  whole  body,  but  the  flexors  only  raife  the 
legs ; and  as  no  head  or  focket  moves  fo  eaflly  as 
round  ones,  here  feems  to  be  fome  proviflon  made 
againfl;  the  inconvenience  of  a flattilh  head  and  cav- 
ity, by  having  the  fridtion  made  upon  two  furfaces, 
the  Os  femoris  upon  the  loofe  cartilages,  and  the  loofe 
cartilages  upon  the  tibia.  This  contrivance  is  prac- 
tifed  by  mechanics,  where  the  fridtion  of  the  joints 
of  any  of  their  machines  is  great,  as  between  the 
parts  of  hook-hinges  of  heavy  gates,  and  between 
' the  m.ale  and  female  ferews  of  large  vices,  where 
they  ufually  place  a looking. 

There  are  other  cartilages  which  ferve  to  give 
fhape  to  parts.  Of  this  fort  are  the  ciliary  cartil- 
ages at  the  edge  of  the  eye-lids,  the  cartilages  of 
the  outer  ears,  and  thofe  which  compofe  the  lower 
part  of  the  nofe,  which  have  this  particular  advan- 
tage in  thefe  places,  that  they  fupport  and  fliape 
the  parts  as  well  as  bones  do,  and  without  being 
liable  to  be  broke  ; and  to  thefe  might  be  added 
thofe  of  the  larynx,  but  they  do  not  belong  properly 
to  the  flieleton. 

Bones  that  are  articulated  for  motion  are  ti- 
ed together  by  very  ilrong  ligaments,  to  pre- 
vent their  diflocatlng,  which  alfo  furround  the 
joints  to  contain  their  lubricating  mucus.  The 
thicknefs  and  ilrength  of  thefe  ligaments  are  pro- 
portioned to  the  adtions  of  the  feveral  joints,  and 
their  lengths  are  no  more  than  fuffleient  to  allow  a 
proper  quantity  of  motion  ; but  the  forms  of  them 
D 2 


are 


44  CARTILAGES, 

are  tlirTerent  according  to  the  different  adions  of  the 
lev^eral  joints. 

T’he  bones  of  the  limbs  that  move  to  all  fides 
have  ligaments  like  purfes,  which  arlfe  from  or 
near  the  edges  of  the  fockets  of  the  receiving  bones, 
and  are  inferted  all  round  the  received  bones  a little 
below  their  heads.  The  beginnings  of  thefe  liga- 
ments, from  the  edges  of  the  fockets  of  the  fcapula 
and  os  innominatum,  are  very  hard,  almoll  cartila- 
ginous, which  ferves  in  the  fcapula  to  make  a larg- 
er focket,  and  fuch  an  oimas  will  alter  the  figure 
as  the  bone  moves,  for  th«jjtofonT  have  mentioned 
in  the  loofe  cartilage  of  the  knee  : for  the  head  of 
the  os  humeri  not  being  an  exad  portion  of  a fphere, 
requires  rach  a focket,  and  the  hard  part  of  this  liga- 
ment of  the  focket  of  the  os  innominatum  makes 
the  focket  deeper  than  the  femidiameter  of  the 
focket,  by  which  means  the  articulation  is  made 
ftronger  without  any  hindrance  to  motion,  becaufe 
it  will  give  way  to  the  neck  of  the  os  femoris  when 
it  preffes  againfi;  it ; and  the  thigh  bone  being  more 
difpofed  to  be  dillocated  upwards  than  any  other 
way,  the  upper  fide  of  this  burial  ligament  is  made 
exceeding  if  rong  to  prevent  fuch  an  accident.  From 
the  lower  edge  of  the  acetabulum  or  focket  of  the 
os  innominatum  arifes  a ligament  about  an  inch 
long,  called  teres,  or  rotundum,  which  length  is 
neceffary  for  that  quantity  of  motion  which  this 
joint  has  in  human  bodies  ; it  alfo  hinders  the  os 
femoris  from  diflocating  upwards,  but  downwards 

it 


45 


LIGAMENTS,  8zc. 

it  will  fuller  it  to  go  far  out  of  the  focket ; but  in 
brutes  the  head  of  the  os  femoris  being  oblong, 
and  the  cavity  fuitable,  there  can  be  only  a rota- 
tory motion,  which  in  effeft  will  be  very  little 
more  than  that  kind  of  motion  which  is  called 
bending  and  extending ; and  this  never  remorhng 
the  end  of  the  head  of  the  bone  far  in  the  focket, 
a fhort  ligament  is  enough  for  it,  and  will  better 
keep  the  bone  in  its  place  ; and  therefore  it  is  that 
theirs  is  fo  fhort.  This  ligament  in  men  may  alfo 
ferve  to  prefs  the  gland  ^the  bottom  of  the  aceta- 
bulum or  focket. 

The  ligaments  of  thofe  joir?':s  which  admit  only 
of  hexion  and  extenfion,  differ  from  the  former 
in  this,  that  they  are  much  ihorter  and  flronger  at 
the  Tides  of  the  joints,  and  tliinner  backward  and 
forward.  Befidcs  thefe  ligaments,  in  the  middle 
and  back  part  of  the  joint  of  the  knee,  are  two  very 
ftrong  ligaments,  which  arife  from  a procefs  at  the 
end  of  the  tibia.  They  crofs  each  other  in  inch  a 
manner,  as  is  befl;  to  ihcure  the  joint  from  being 
difplaced  any  way  ; they  alfo  hinder  the  extenicrs 
of  the  tibia  from  pulling  that  bone  too  far  for- 
wards, and  are  fo  connedied  to  the  femilunar  cartil- 
ages, as  to  move  them  as  the  joint  moves  ; be- 
fides  thefe,  in  this  joint  is  another  imall  one,  which 
arifes  from  the  os  femoris,  and  ends  in  the  fatty 
membrane  which  it  fupports.  The  Imee,  I think, 
cannot  be  completely  diflocated  without  brcaldng 
the  crofs  ligaments  : I have  feen  this  cafe  but  once, 

th  ^ 

V4.  X ■iy 


46  CARTILAGES, 

the  bone  indeed  was  eafily  reftored  to  its  place, 
but  to  no  purpofe. 

The  bones  of  the  carpus  and  tarfus  are  tied  to- 
gether by  ligaments  running  promifeuoufly  upon 
their  furfaces  from  one  to  another  ; which  at  the 
under  fide  of  the  tarlus  are  vaftly  ftrong,  becaufe 
they  fupport  the  whole  body  ; thefe  ligaments  to- 
gether contain  the  mucus  for  all  thofc  joints.  There 
is  alfo  to  the  carpus  a ftrong  ligament,  which  runs 
from  the  fifth  bone  to  the  eighth,  and  the  procefs 
of  the  fourth  bone  : the  proper  ufe  of  this  is,  to 
bind  down  the  tendons  of  the  mufcles  that  bend  the 
fingers. 

The  procefius  dentatus  of  the  fecond  vertebra  is 
tied  to  the  fcull  by  a ligament,  and  kept  clofe  to 
the  forepart  of  the  firft  vertebra  by  another  in  that 
vertebra,  that  it  may  not  bruife  t]he  fpinal  mar- 
row ; and  when  either  this  ligarneht  or  procefs  is 
broke,  it  makes  that  fort  of  broken  neck  which  is 
attended  with  fudden  death.  All  the  bones  of  the 
vertebra,  and  every  joint  that  is  without  motion, 
and  not  joined  by  a future,  as  the  ofla  innominata 
with  each  other,  and  the  os  facrum  with  the  ofla 
innominata,  are  joined  by  intervening  ligaments, 
or,  as  they  are  commonly  called,  cartilages.  The 
offa  innominata  are  alfo  tied  by  very  ftrong  liga- 
ments v/hich  run  from  the  back  parts  of  the  fpines 
of  the  ofla  ilia  to  the  os  facrum,  and  other  liga- 
ments which  go  from  the  os  facrum,  and  os  coccy- 
gis  to  the  acute  and  obtufe  proceflTes  of  the  ofla  if- 

chia : 


LIGAMENTS,  &c.  47 

chia : thefe  ligaments  ferve  alfo  for  origins  of  muf- 
cles.  Tov/ards  the  great  foramen  of  the  olfa  inno- 
minata  the  acetabulum  has  a deep  notch,  from  the 
one  fide  to  the  other  of  which  runs  a ligament 
which  completes  the  focket ; this  ligament  is  fome- 
times  olTified  : a ligament  fommwhat  like  this  there 
is  between  the  proceffes  of  the  fcapula. 

From  the  edge  of  the  ilium  to  that  of  the  os 
pubis,  runs  a ligament  v/hich  is  contiguous  to, 
and  appears  to  be  a part  of,  tlie  tendons  of  the  muf- 
cles  of  the  abdomen  ; its  ufe  is  to  cover  the  iliac 
veffels  as  they  defcend  to  the  thigh.  Under  this 
ligament,  together  v/ith  the  veffels,  I have  often 
feen  a rupture  of  matter,  and,  I think,  fometimes 
of  the  gut,  from  the  abdomen  into  the  anterior 
part  of  the  thigh,  immediately  below  the  groin ; 
however,  I dare  affirm  this  to  be  a poffible  cafe. 

It  is  generally  agreed,  that  the  ligaments  are  in- 
fenfible,  and  the  reafon  affigned  is,  that  they  would 
elfe  be  injured  by  ordinary  motions.  But  they  are 
much  better  contrived  ; feeing  none  of  them,  not 
even  thofe  vrhich  lie  between  the  vertebrse,  are  fub- 
ject  to  attrition  ; but  the  other,  experience  ffiews, 
are  capable  of  very  acute  pains ; there  being  not 
any  thing  our  patients  more  grievoufly  complain  of, 
than  colledlions  of  matter  within  thefe  parts,  or 
{harp  medicines  applied  to  them,  when  laid  bare. 

Every  joint,  where  the  bones  are  faced  vBth  a 
cartilage  for  a Hiding  motion,  is  furniffied  with 
fmall  glands,  which  feparate  a mucilaginous  mat- 
ter 


a8  cartilages, 

' -t. 

ter  for  the  lubricating  of  the  ends  of  the  bones,  that 
they  may  move  eafily  upon  one  another  ; and  that 
there  may  be  no  wafte  of  this  necefiary  fluid,  it  is 
contained  in  the  in  veiling  ligaments;  which,  for  this 
very  reafon,  are  no  where  divided,  except  to  com- 
municate with  the  ligaments  of  the  tendons. 

Thefe  glands  are  generally  feated  in  a little  fat 
near  the  infertion  of  the  ligaments,  that  they  may 
be  compreiTed  by  them  when  the  joints  are  in  mo-^ 
tion  ; which  is  a proper  time  to  have  their  fluid 
preiTed  cut.  The  mofl;  confiderable  parcel  of  thefe 
glands,  with  their  fat,  are  feen  in  the  joint  of  the 
knee,  and  the  largeil  gland  of  this  fort  is  found  in 
the  finus  at  the  bottom  of  the  acetabulum  of  the 
os  innominatum,  and  is  comprelTed  by  the  liga- 
mentum  teres. 

The  difeafes  of  the  joints  either  happen  from 
ulcers  in  the  lubricating  glands,  which,  pouring  out 
matter  that  cannot  he  difcharged,  foul  the  ends 
of  the  bones,  or  elfe  from  fwellings  in  the  ends  of 
the  refpeftive  bones.  Either  of  thefe  in  time  create 
exceflive  pain,  which  appears  to  me  to  be  chiefly 
in  the  ligaments  of  the  joints,  notwithflanding  what 
has  been  faid  of  the  infenflbility  of  thefe  parts. 
When  a joint  is  much  fwelled  and  painful,  with- 
out external  inflammation,  it  is  vulgarly  called  a 
white  fweiling,  and  more  properly  fo  than  fpina 
ventofa.  It  is  fometimes  in  the  beginning  cured 
by  evacuations,  but  when  the  limb  wafles  below 
the  fvrelling,  and  the  fingers  or  toes  of  the  limb 


L I G A M E N T S,  &c.  49 

grow  thinner  at  their  joints,  and  lofe  their  fhape, 
the  cafe  then  is  abfolutely  irrecoverable.  Some- 
times the  ends  of  the  bones  erode,  then  join  to- 
gether and  form  an  anchylolis,  which,  though  a fe- 
vere  difeafe  of  itfelf,  yet  it  is  often  a remedy  of  one 
that  is  much  worfe.  In  like  manner  the  bones  of 
the  hands  and  feet,  when  they  are  ulcerated,  fome- 
times  unite,  and  are  thus  preferved  from  total  ruin. 
But  there  is  one  cafe  of  a white  fwelling  that  is 
amazing,  where  the  pain  is  fo  great  that  we  are 
forced  to  take  off  the  limb,  and  yet  neither  find 
upon  diffe£tion  the  ligaments  or  glands  difeafed, 
nor  matter  in  the  joint,  nor  the  bones  carious,  or 
any  difeafed  appearance,  except  that  the  ends  of 
the  bones  are  a little  larger  and  fofter, 


TAB. 


( 50  ) 

TAB.  I. 

A,  The  fkeleton  of  a child  tv/enty  months  old, 
in  which  all  the  bones  differ  in  fhape  from 
thoie  of  an  adult.  The  fcull  is  much  larger 
in  proportion,  and  the  bones  of  the  limbs  with- 
out thofe  roughnehes  and  uncvenneffes  which 
afterwards  appear  ; their  texture  is  every  vmere 
more  loofe  and  fpongy,  and  their  outlines  what 
the  painters  call  tame  and  infipid  ; their  ex- 
tremities are  feparate  and  formed  cartilaginous, 
which  is  accurately  diflinguiuied  in  the  plates 
by  the  manner  of  graving. 

B,  The  thigh  bone  of  a man,  fawed  through,  in 
the  middle  of  which  is  feen  the  cavity  which 
contains  the  oily  marrov/,  and  at  the  extremities 
the  leffer  cells,  which  contain  the  bloody  mar- 
row. The  v/hite  line  acrofs  the  head  of  this 
bone,  beginning  at  the  fingers  of  the  fkeleton,  is 
the  place  where  the  epiphyfis  and  the  bone  are 
united.  A like  line,  acrofs  the  lower  end  of 
this  bone,  Ihews  there  the  fame  thing. 

C,  The  os  bregmatis  of  a foetus  fix  m-onths  old, 
which  (hews  the  fibres  oflifying  from  the  cen- 
ter to  the  circumference.  ■ 


TAB. 


TAB! 


P.5o. 


TA£  JI 


( 51  ) 

TAB.  II. 


1 Os  fronds. 

2 Os  bregmatis, 

3 Os  temporis. 

4 Os  occipids.  \ 

5 Os  malse. 

6 Os  maxilise  fuperioris. 

"7  Os  nafi. 

8 Os  planum. 

9 Proceffus  maftoideus. 

1 6 Proceffus  ftyloides. 

1 1 Proceffus  pterygoides. 

J2  Dentes. 

13  Proceffus  coronalis. 

14  Proceffus  condyloides, 

15  Dentes, 


TAB. 


{ 52  ) 

TAB.  III. 

1 Os  frontis. 

2 Os  bregmatis. 

3 Os  occipltis. 

4 Sella  turcica. 

5 A procefs  of  the  os  fphenoides,  making  part  of 

the  feptum  nafi. 

6 A procefs  of  the  os  ethmoides,  making  part  of 

the  feptum  nafi. 

7 Vomer. 

8 Crifta  galli,  before  which  is  feen  in  fhadow  the 

finus  frontalis. 

9 The  cornua  of  the  os  fphenoides, 

10  Sella  turcica. 

1 1 Os  frontis. 

1 2 Crifta  galli  and  os  ethmoides. 

1 3 Sinus  frontales. 

14  Sella  turcica. 

15  The  fifth  foramen. 

16  Proceftus  jugales. 

17  Os  petrofum. 

18  Foramen  magnum. 

ig  The  outfide  of  the  os  occipitis. 


TAB, 


TAB-in: 


F.S&. 


Tab.iv. 


E^3. 


$ 


( 53  ) 
TAB.  IV, 


1 The  fecond  vertebra  of  the  neck, 

2 The  tranfverfe  procefTes  of  the  vertebrge  of  the 

neck. 

3 Clavicula. 

4 The  proceffus  acromion  of  the  fcapula. 

5 Os  humeri. 

6 The  ribs. 

7 The  tranfverfe  procefTes  of  the  vertebrae  of  the 

loins. 

8 The  os  facrum  and  os  coccygis. 
o Os  ileum. 

10  Os  ifehium. 

1 1 Os  pubis. 

12  Os  femoris. 


# 


TAB. 


( 54  ) 

TAB.  V. 

I The  under  fide  of  the  firft  vertebra  of  the  neck* 
1 A fide  view  of  the  fecond  vertebra. 

3 The  proceifus  dentatus  of  the  fecond  vertebra. 

4 The  under  fide  of  the  oblique  procefs. 

5 The  fpinal  procefs. 

6 The  under  fide  of  the  body  of  the  feventh  ver- 

tebra of  the  neck. 

7 The  tranfverfe  proceffes. 

8 The  oblique  proceffes. 

9 The  fpinal  procefs. 

I o The  fpinal  procefs  of  the  fecond  vertebra  of  the 

back. 

I I The  under  and  fore  fide  of  the  body  of  the 
vertebra. 

1 2 The  tranfverfe  proceffes. 

13  The  upper  oblique  proceffes  of  the  third  ver- 

tebra of  the  back. 

14  The  tranfverfe  proceffes. 

15  The  fpinal  procefs. 

16  The  body  of  the  third  vertebra  of  the  loins. 

1 7 The  tranfverfe  proceffes. 

1 8 The  upper  oblique  proceffes. 

19  The  fpinal  procefs. 


TAB. 


TAB.V, 


T.J4-- 


a 


1 


. ■* 


, ■'l".  . •■  . ■ ' . i ■ ■ 


. . V • • 

' ■ 

%*  ■ '■,  ■ ■ ■ ’ 


TAB  VI . 


jp.ss. 


00 


( 55  ) 

TAB.  VL 

1 The  head  of  the  os  humeri. 

2 The  outer  extuberance. 

3 The  inner  extuberance. 

4 That  part  which  joins  with  the  ulna. 

5 The  olecranon  of  the  ulna. 

6 The  lower  end  of  the  ulna  which  joins  to  the 
radius. 

Proceffus  ftyloides. 

The  upper  end  of  the  radius. 

9 The  tubercle. 

lo  The  part  of  the  radius  which  joins  with  the 
carpus. 

II,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  The  eight  bones 
of  the  carpus. 


T A B, 


( 56  ) 

TAB.  VII, 


1 Radius.  ^ 

2 Ulna. 

3 Carpus. 

4 The  three  bones  of  the  thumb. 

5 The  four  bones  of  the  metacarpus. 

6 The  three  bones  of  the  fingers. 


TAB. 


TAB  .W. 


B.56. 


I 


2 


V 


PS^. 


TxSJi.VBI. 


( 57  ) 


TAB.  VIII. 

1 The  head  of  the  os  femoris. 

2 The  great  trochanter. 

3 The  lefler  trochanter. 

4 The  lower  end  which  articulates  with  the  tibia. 

5 The  upper  end  of  the  tibia. 

6 The  lower  end  of  the  tibia. 

7 The  procefs  which  makes  the  inner  ancle. 

8 The  upper  end  of  the  fibula. 

9 The  lower  end  which  makes  the  outer  ancle. 

I o The  outfide  of  the  patella. 

I I The  infide  of  the  patella. 


E 


TAB, 


( 58  j 

TAB.  IX. 


1 Aflragalus. 

2 Os  calcis. 

3 Os  naviculare. 

4,  5,  6,  Ofla  cuneifomiia» 
y Os  cuboides. 

8 The  five  bones  of  the  metatarfus., 

9 The  two  bones  of  the  great  toe. 

I o The  three  bones  of  the  leffer  toes. 


TAB  DC, 


2=.S». 


2 


I > 


m ' 

' 


( 59  ) 

TAB.  X. 


A Skeleton  of  an  adult  put  into  this  poflure 
0 fhew  it  in  a greater  fcale*  It  was  thought  bet- 
'er  not  to  figure  it,  all  thefe  bones  being  explained 
n former  plates,  and  the  defign  of  this  being  to 
hew  them  together,  without  being  defaced  with 
leferences. 


E a 


THE 


.■'  ^/N.'^'Ti'V^'-  I.. ' ■ ■;■■'  „ , :,: " ■ ■;, ' ■ ' " •"'„ 

' - ■■  ' v;|f.  ^■;:■>C.,■:' 

'■',  : ,■"' : i'  v;'^'  ;i::  ■"■  ' ' . ..'.'  '^■'’'■■'■5  T.'" 

J • ■ . ■ -i  :;  ■ 


THE 


anatomy 

OF  THE 

HUMAN  BODY. 


BOOK  II. 


CHAP.  I. 

Introduction  to  the  Muscles. 

The  mufcles  are  moving  powers,  applied  to 
perform  the  feveral  motions  of  the  body ; which 
they  do  by  contracting  their  length,  and  thereby 
bringing  the  parts  to  which  they  are  fixed  nearer 
together.  The  immoveable  or  leaft  moved  part 
any  mufcle  is  fixed  to,  is  ufually  called  its  origin, 
and  the  other  its  infertion  ; but  mufcles  that  have 
their  two  ends  equally  liable  to  be  moved,  may 
have  either  called  the  origins  or  infertions. 

Each  mufcle  is  made  up  of  a number  of  fmall 
fibres,  which  Borelli  and  others  have  thought 

to 


62 


INTRODUCTION 


to  be  firings  of  bladders,  and  have  endeavoured  to 
account  for  mufcular  motion  by  an  expanfion  made 
from  an  influx  of  blood  and  animal  fpirits  into  thefe 
bladders  ; but  as  the  mufcles  do  not  increafe  their 
bulk  fenfibly  in  contrad;ing,  there  needs  no  more 
to  be  faid  to  refute  this  hypothefis.  But  another' 
great  author  thought  that  in  this  way  the  mufcles 
might  be  contracted  by  a fwelling,  fcarce  fenfible, 
if  the  bladders  were  but  very  fmall : for,  fays  he, 
fuppofing  a bladder  of  any  determined  bignefs  can 
raife  a weight  a foot,  a hundred  bladders,  whofe 
diameters  are  each  a hundredth  part  of  the  former, 
will  raife  the  weight  to  the  fame  height.  But  the 
force  of  inflation  and  the  fwelling  of  all  together 
will  be  ten  thoufand  times  lefs,  and  it  will  alfo 
raife  ten  thoufand  times  lefs  weight,  which  he 
has  not  obfervcd  ; therefore  not  one  fuch  firing  of 
bladders,  but  ten  thoufand,  muft  be  applied  to  do 
the  fame  thing  that  the  one  bladder  will  do  ; and 
they  will  have  the  fame  fwelling ; otherwife  it 
would  be  eafy  to  fhew  how  to  make  a perpctuurn 
mobile  of  almoft  any  force. 

The  mufcles  are  of  two  forts,  viz.  redilineal, 
and  penniform.  The  former  have  their  fibres  al- 
mofl  parallel,  in  the  fame  or  near  the  fame  direction 
with  the  axis  of  the  m.ufcle  ; and  the  latter  have 
their  flbres  joined,  in  an  oblique  direction,  to  a ten- 
don palling  in  or  near  the  axis,  or  on  their  outfide. 

The  rectilineal  mufcles,  if  their  origins  and  in- 
fertions  are  in  little  compafs,  are  never  of  any  con- 

fiderable 


I 

j TO  THE  MUSCLE  S.  63 

fidcrable  thicknefs,  unlefs  they  are  very  long,  be- 
caufe  the  outward  fibres  would  comprefs  the  in- 
ner ones,  and  make  them  almoft  ufelefs ; and 
therefore  every  redilineal  mufcle,  whofe  inner 
fibres  are  comprefled  by  the  outer,  have  their  in- 
I ner  fibres  longer  than  the  external,  that  they  may 
i be  capable  of  equal  quantity  of  contradion. 

The  penniform  mufcles,  though  they  are  in  a 
I manner  free  from  the  inconvenience  of  one  fibre 
I comprelfing  another,  and  though  by  the  obliquity 
of  their  fibres,  nothing  is  abated  of  their  moment, 
(for  in  all  cafes,  juft  fo  much  more  weight  as  redi- 
iineal  fibres  will  raife  than  oblique  ones,  the  ob- 
lique will  move  their  weight  with  fo  much  greater 
velocity  than  the  redilineal  ; which  is  making  their 
moments  equal ; fo  that  in  the  ftrudure  of  an  ani- 
mal, like  all  mechanic  engines,  whatever  is  gained 
in  ftrength  is  loft  in  velocity,  and  whatever  is  gain- 
ed in  velocity  is  loft  in  ftrength)  yet  the  fibres  of 
I the  penniform  mufcles  becoming  more  and  more 
t oblique  as  they  contrad,  their  ftrength  decreafes, 
i and  their  velocity  increafes,  which  makes  them  lefs 
f uniform  in  their  adions  than  the  redilineal  muf- 

1 cles  ; wherefore  it  feems  that  nature  never  ufes  a 

j penniform  mufcle  where  a redilineal  mufcle  can 
1 be  ufed  ; and  the  cafes  in  which  a redilineal  muf- 
cle cannot  be  ufed,  are  where  the  fhape  of  a muf- 
cle is  fuch  as  that  the  inward  fibres  vrould  be  too 
much  compreifed,  or  where  redilineal  fibres  could 

not 


64  INTRODUCTION 

not  have  a lever  to  ad  with,  fuitable  to  their  quan- 
tity of  contradion,  which  is  the  cafe  of  all  the 
long  mufcles  of  the  fingers  and  toes.  For  every 
mufcle  muft  be  inferted  or  pafs  over  the  centre 
of  motion  of  the  joint  it  moves,  at  a diftance 
fuitable  to  its  quantity  of  contradion,  and  the 
quantity  of  motion  in  the  joint  moved ; for  if  it 
was  inferted  too  near,  then  the  motion  of  the  joint 
would  be  performed  before  the  mufcle  is  contrad- 
ed  all  that  it  can  ; if  too  far  off,  the  mufcle  will 
have  done  contrading  before  the  whole  motion  of 
the  joint  is  made.  And  though  the  quicknefs  and 
quantity  of  motion  in  a mufcle  will  be,  cacteris  pa- 
ribus, as  the  length  of  its  fibres  ; (for  if  a fibre  four 
inches  long  will  contrad  one  inch  in  a given  time, 
a fibre  eight  inches  long  will  contrad  two  inches 
in  the  fame  time  ; and  the  ftrength  of  a mufcle 
or  power  to  raife  a weight,  caeteris  paribus,  will 
be  as  the  number  of  its  fibres ; for  if  one  fibre 
will  raife  a grain  weight,  twenty  fibres  will  raife 
twenty  grains  :)  neverthelefs,  two  mufcles  of 
equal  magnitude,  one  long,  and  the  other  fhort, 
will  both  move  the  fame  weight  with  the  fame  ve- 
locity when  applied  to  a bone  ; becaufe  the  levers 
they  ad  with  muft  be  as  their  lengths,  and  there- 
fore the  penniform  and  fhort  thick  mufcles  are 
never  applied  to  a bone  for  the  fake  of  ftrength,  nor 
long  fibred  mufcles  for  quicknefs  ; for  whatever  is 
gained  by  the  form  of  the  mufcle,  whether  ftrength 
or  quicknefs,  muft  be  loft  by  their  infertions  into 

the 


f 


TO  THE  MUSCLES.  65 

tlie  bone,  or  elfe  the  mufcles  muft  not  a£t  all  they 
can,  or  the  bones  have  lefs  motion  than  they  are 
made  for. 

In  the  limbs  feveral  mufcles  pafs  over  two 
joints,  both  of  which  are  liable  to  move  at  once, 
with  force  proportionable  to  the  levers  they  a£t 
with  upon  each  joint ; but  either  joint  being  fixed 
by  an  antagonift  mufcle,  the  whole  force  of  fuch 
mufcles  will  be  exerted  upon  the  other  joint ; 
which  in  that  cafe  may  be  moved  with  a velocity 
equal  to  what  is  in  both  joints,  when  thefe  mufcles 
a£t  upon  both  at  once.  This  mechanifm  is  of 
great  ufe  in  the  limbs,  as  I fhall  fhew  in  the  prop- 
er places. 

That  only  we  call  the  proper  ufe  and  adtion 
of  any  mufcle  which  it  has  v/ithout  the  neceflary 
affiftance  of  any  other  mufcle,  and  what  that  is 
in  a mufcle  moving  a joint  we  may  always  know 
in  any  fituation,  and  with  what  force  it  adts,  cse- 
teris  paribus,  by  dropping  a line,  from  the  centre 
of  motion  of  the  joint  it  moves,  perpendicular  into 
the  axis  of  the  mufcle ; but  in  a joint  which  ad- 
mits only  of  flexion  and  extenfion,  this  line  muft 
alfo  be  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  motion  in  that 
joint,  and  the  aiiion  of  the  mufcles  will  be  in  the 
diredtion  of  that  perpendicular  line,  and  the  force 
with  which  it  acfts  in  any  fituation  will  be,  cseteris 
paribus,  as  the  length  of  that  perpendicular  line. 

Each  mufcle,  fo  far  as  it  is  diftinffc,  and  is  moved 
againft  any  part,  is  covered  with  a fmooth  mem- 
brane 


66 


INTRODUCTION,  &c. 

brane  to  make  the  fridllon  eafy  ; but  where  they 
are  externally  tendinous,  thofe  tendons  are  often 
fmooth  enough  to  make  fuch  a covering  needlefs. 
Befides  this  membrane  there  is  another,  known  by 
the  name  of  fafcia  tendinofa,  which  deferves  to  be 
particularly  confidered.  The  ftrong  one  on  the 
outfide  of  the  thigh,  which  belongs  to  the  fafcialis 
and  gluteus  mufcles,  is  of  great  ufe  in  raifmg  the 
giuteous  farther  from  the  centre  of  motion  of  the 
joint  it  moves,  to  increafe  its  force  : in  like  manner 
the  fafcia  detached  from  the  tendon  of  the  biceps 
eubiti  alters  its  directions  for  the  fame  purpofe,  but 
thofe  on  the  outfide  of  the  tibia  and  cubit,  &c.  are 
onlv  fiat  tendons  from  which  the  fibres  of  the 
mufcles  arife  as  from  the  bones.  There  are  alfo 
in  many  places  fuch  tendons  between  the  mufcles, 
from  which  each  mufcle  arifes  in  like  manner ; for 
the  bones  themfelves  are  not  fufficient  to  give 
origin  to  half  the  fibres  of  the  mufcles  that  belong 
to  them  ; befides,  if  all  the  fibres  had  rife  from 
the  bones,  they  muft  have  been  liable  to  comprefs 
one  another  very  inconveniently. 


C H A R 


Of  THE  MUSCLES. 


6y 

CHAP.  II. 

Of  the  Muscles. 

ObLIQUUS  defcendens  arifes  fieflily  from  near 
the  extremities  of  the  eight  inferior  ribs,  the 
upper  part  of  its  origin  being  indented  with 
the  feratus  major  anticus,  and  the  lower  lying 
under  a fmall  portion  of  the  latilTimus  dorfi. 
It  is  inferted  flelhly  into  the  upper  part  of  the  fpine 
of  the  ilium,  and  by  a broad  fiat  tendon  (which 
firmly  adheres  to  a like  tendon  of  the  following 
mufcle  as  they  pafs  over  the  re(!dus)  into  the  os 
pubis,  and  linea  alba,  which  is  a ftrong  tendinous 
line  extended  from  the  os  pubis  to  the  fternum, 
between  the  mufculi  reQ;i. 

Obliquus  afcendens  arifes  fleflily  under  the 
former  mufcle  from  the  fpine  of  the  ilium,  and  is 
inferted  fielhly  in  the  cartilages  of  the  three  lowefh 
ribs,  and  by  a fiat  tendon  into  the  fternum,  and 
linea  alba,  together  with  the  tendon  of  the  forego- 
ing mufcle.  The  line  in  which  thefe  two  tendons 
join  on  the  outfide  of  the  red:us  mufcle,  is  called 
femiiunaris : and  though  fo  much  of  this  mufcle 
as  is  inferted  fiefhly  runs  obliquely  upward,  yet  the 
middle  and  lower  part  is  directed  tranfverfe  and 
downward  ; and  befide  the  tendon,  which  it  unites 
with  the  obliquus  defcendens,  it  often  detaches 
another  near  the  fternum  to  be  inferted  wdth  the 
traufverfalis  under  the  reclus. 

Pyramidalls 


63 


Of  the  muscles. 


Pyranildalis  arifes  from  the  os  pubis,  and  is 
iiifertcd  into  the  linea  alba,  about  three  or  four 
inclies  below  the  navel : this  and  its  fellow  are 
often  wanting. 

Redlus  arifes  tendinous  from  the  os  pubis,  but 
hefliy  when  the  pyramidales  are  wanting,  and  is 
inferted  into  the  lower  part  of  the  fternum,  near 
the  cartilago  enfiformis.  This  mufcle  is  divided 
into  four  or  five  portions  by  tranfverfe  tendinous 
interfeftions,  that  it  might  conveniently  bend  when 
the  body  is  bowed  forwards,  though  this  mufcle 
fhould  be  then  in  adtion  ; and  thefe  interfedlions 
are  chiefly  above  the  navel,  where  it  is  moft  liable 
to  be  bent : befides,  being  thus  divided,  its  chief 
preiTure  will  not  be  in  its  middle,  but  under  the 
feveral  bellies  of  the  mufcle,  and  the  greateft  below 
the  navel,  where  Is  the  longeft  flefliy  belly  of  this 
mufcle,  and  where  the  parts  in  the  abdomen  feem 
to  want  moft  to  be  fupported. 

Tranfveri'alis  arifes  by  a fla:t  tendon  from  the 
tranfverfe  procefles  of  the  lumbal  vertebrae,  and 
flefliy  from  the  infide  of  the  ribs  below  the  dia- 
phragm, and  from  the  fpine  of  the  ilium  ; then, 
becoming  a flat  tendon,  it  paifes  under  the  redtus 
to  its  infertion  into  the  linea  alba.  Between  this 
tendon  and  the  peritoneum  lometimes  water  is 
found  in  great  quantities,  which  diftemper  is 
, called  the  dropfy  in  the  duplicature  of  the  peri- 
toneum ; which  fhews  this  membrane  has  been 
miftaken  for  part  of  the  peritoneum. 


Thefe 


Of  the  muscles.  69  ' 

Thefe  five  pair  of  mufcles  all  confpire  to 
comprefs  the  parts  contained  in  the  abdomen. 
The  obliquus  defcendens  on  the  right  fide,  and 
afcendens  on  the  left  afting  together,  turn  the 
upper  part  of  the  trunk  of  the  body  towards  the 
left,  and  vice  verfa  ; but  the  trunk  is  chiefly 
turned  upon  the  thighs  ; the  re<fii  bend  the  body 
forward,  and  pull  the  flernum  downward  in  ex- 
piratk)n  ; the  two  oblique  mufcles  and  the  tranf- 
verfe  on  each  fide  near  the  groin,  are  perforated 
to  let  through  the  procefTus  vaginalis  with  the 
fpermatic  velTels.  Thefe  perforations  are  diftant 
from  each  other,  fo  as  to  fuffer  the  velfels  to 
defcend  conveniently  into  the  fcrotum  : this  way 
the  inteftines  or  the  omentum  defcend  in  rup- 
tures. 

Cremafler  teftis  is  a fmall  portion  of  fibres 
which  arifes  from  the  ilium,  and  appears  to 
be  part  of  the  obliquus  afcendens  mufcle,  till  it 
meets  with  the  fpermatic  velfels  at  their  coming 
out  of  the  abdomen,  where  it  begins  to  defcend 
with  them  by  the  fide  of  the  procelfus  vaginalis, 
to  the  tefticle,  over  which  it  is  loofely  expanded. 
This  mufcle  is  too  fmall  to  be  plainly  difcovered 
in  emaciated  bodies. 

Ereftor  penis  arifes  from  the  os  ifchium,  and 
is  inferted  into  the  crus  penis  near  the  os  pubis. 

It  is  faid,  by  prelTing  the  penis  againft  the  os  pubis 
to  comprefs  the  vena  ipfius  penis,  and  hinder  the 
reflux  of  blood,  whereby  the  penis  becomes  ex- 
tended . 


70 


Of  the  muscles. 


tended  and  eredt  ; but  it  does  not  appear  to  me  to 
be  weil  contrived  for  that  ufe. 

Accelerator  urinse.  This,  with  its  fellow, - 
are  but  one  mufcle.  It  arifes  tendinous  from  the 
offa  ifchia,  and  flefhy  from  the  fphincier  ani  ; or, 
according  to  Mr.  Cowper,  from  the  fuperior  part 
of  the  urethra  as  it  pafies  under  the  os  pubis  : and 
thence,  being  expanded  over  the  bulb  of  the 
urethra,  it  afterwards  divides,  and  is  infertedidnto 
the  penis.  The  ufe  of  this  mufcle  is  not  to  accel- 
erate the  urine,  for  that  is  propelled  by  the  detrufor 
urinac,  or  mufcular  coat  of  the  bladder,  but  to  pro- 
trude the  femen,  which  is  done  only  by  this : and 
it  being  feated  oppofite  to  the  os  pubis,  it  feems  to 
be  much  better  fitted  to  be  a relaxer  of  the  penis, 
by  pulling  it  from  the  os  pubis,  than  the  eredlor 
js  for  the  office  affigned  it. 

Tranfverfalis  penis  is  that  part  of  the  former 
mufcle  which  arifes  from  the  offa  ifchia. 

Sphindter  veficse  urinarias  is  a fmall  portion  of 
mufcular  fibres,  not  eafily  to  be  diftinguifhed,  run- 
ning round  the  neck  of  the  bladder  to  prevent  the 
involuntary  effufion  of  urine. 

Detrufor  urinac  is  the  mufcular  coat  of  the  blad- 
der ; its  fibres  are  differently  difpofed  ; but  chiefly 
terminating  in  the  fphindter  vefica,  whereby  it  not 
only  preffes  the  urine  forward,  but,  w'hen  the  blad- 
der is  full,  becomes  an  antagonift- to  the  fpindfer, 
adting  almofl:  at  right  angles. 


Eredtor 


Of-  the  muscles. 


71 

Eredtor  clitoridis  arifes  from  the  ifchium,  and 
is  inferted  into  the  crus  clitoridis,  like  the  eredtor 
penis  in  men,  and  is  faid  to  caufe  eredlion  in  the 
fame  manner. 

Sphindter  vaginse  is  an  order  of  mufcular  fi- 
bres, intermixed  with  membranous  fibres,  furround- 
ing the  vagina  uteri  near  its  orifice  ; it  is  connedl;- 
ed  to  the  ofTa  pubis  and  fphindter  ani  ; its  ufe  is 
to  conftr^nge  the  orifice  of  the  vagina,  to  prefs  out 
^ liquor  from  the  glands  of  the  vagina,  and  em- 
brace the  penis  in  coition. 

Dr.  Douglas  m.entions  two  pair  of  mufcles  of 
the  vagina,  of  his  own  difcovering,  which  I have 
never  difledLcd,  and  will  therefore  gwe  them  in  his 
own  words  ; The  firft  arifes  from  the  inner  edge 
“ of  the  os  pubis  mid-way  between  the  ifchion  and 
“ the  beginning  of  the  crus  clitoridis,  is  inferted  in- 
“ to  the  vagina  ; the  fecond  arifes  tendinous  and 
flefliy  from  the  os  pubis  internally  in  common 
“ with  the  levator  ani,  is  inferted  into  the  upper 
“ part  of  the  vagina  at  the  fide  of  the  meatus  urina- 
“ rius  or  collum  vefica.” 

Sphindter  ani  is  a mufcle  near  two  inches  in 
breadth,  furrounding  the  anus  to  clofe  it,  and  to 
prevent  involuntary  falling  out  of  the  fieces. 

Levator  ani,  by  Dr.  Douglas  called  two 
pair  of  mufcles,  but  Mr.  Cow  per  defcribes  the 
whole  as  one  mufcle  only,  which  arifes  from  the 
offa  ifchii,  pubis,  and  facrum  within  the  pelvis,  and 
is  inferted  round  the  lower  end  of  the  redium  in- 
teftinum* 


Eiftulae 


72 


Of  the  muscle  S, 


Fiflulse  ifi  ano,  that  are  within  this  mufcle^ 
generally  run  in  the  dired;ion  of  the  gut,  and  may 
be  laid  open  into  the  gut  with  great  fafety  ; but 
thofe  fiftulae,  or  rather  abfcefles,  that  are  frequently 
formed  on  the  outfide  of  the  fphindter,  and  ufually 
fuiTOund  it,  all  but  where  this  mufcie  is  connedted 
to  the  penis,  cannot  be  opened  far  into  the  gut, 
without  totally  dividing  the  fphindler,  which,  au- 
thors fay,  renders  the  fphinder  ever  after  incapable 
of  retaining  the  excrement.  One  inftande  of  thi& 
kind  I have  known ; but  Mr.  Berbeck  of  York,  an 
excellent  furgeon,  and  particularly  famous  for  this 
operation,  has  affured  me,  that  he  has  often  been 
forced  to  divide  the  fphindter,  which  has  made  the 
patients  unable  to  hold  their  excrements  during  their 
cure,  but  the  wounds  being  healed,  they  have  re- 
tained them  as  well  as  ever. 

Coccygei  arife  from  the  acute  procelTes  of  the 
offa  ifchii,  and  are  inferted  into  the  os  coccygis, 
which  they  pull  forward. 

Occipito-frontalis,  is  a mufcie  with  four  fiefhy 
bellies,  commonly  named  frontales  and  occipi- 
tales.  It  arifes  behind  each  ear  from  the  os  oc- 
cipitis,  and  foon  becoming  tendinous,  paffes  un- 
der the  hairy  fcalp  -to  the  forehead,  where  it  be- 
comes broad  and  flefhy,  adhering  to  the  fkin,  and  is 
inferted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  orbicular  mufcl^s 
of  the  eyelids,  into  the  os  fronds  near  the  nofe,  and 
by  two  procelfes  into  the  bones  of  the  nofe.  When 
this  mufcie  ads  from  the  back  part,  it  pulls  the 

fkin 


Or  THE  MUSCLES. 


73 

Ikin  of  the  forehead  upward,  and  wrinkles  it  tranf- 
verfe,  and  in  fome  perfons  the  hairy  fcalp  back- 
wards ; but  when  the  fore  part  of  it  ads,  it  draws 
the  fkin  with  the  eyebrows  downward,  and  towards 
the  nofe  when  we  frown.  The  tendon  of  this  muf- 
cle  has  been  miftaken  for  a membrane,  and  been 
called  pericranium,  and  the  true  pericranium,  pe- 
riofteum. 

Elevator  auricula  arifes  from  the  tendon  of 
the  occinito-frontalis,  and  is  inferted  into  the 
upper  part  of  the  ear  that  is  connected  to  the 
head, 

Retrador  auriculae  arifes  by  one,  two,  or 
three  fmall  portions  from  the  temporal  bone  above 
the  mammillary  procefs,  and  is  inferted  into  the  ear 
to  puli  it  backv/ard. 

Orbicularis  palpebrarum  furrounds  the  eye- 
lids on  the  edge  of  the  orbit,  and  is  fixed  to  the 
futura  tranfverfalis  at  the  great  corner  of  the  eye  ; 
it  fliuts  the  eyelids,  efpecially  in  wdnking.  That 
part  of  this  mufcle  that  lies  under  the  eyebrow  is 
very  much  intermixed  with  the  occipito-frontalis  ; 
and  under  it,  from  the  os  frontis  near  the  nofe^ 
arifes  a fmall  portion  of  diftind;  fibres  which  end  in 
this  mufcle,  and,  I think,  are  a part  of  it : neverthe- 
lefs,  from  the  effed;  of  their  ad:ion,  are  not  improp-r- 
erjy  called  mufculus  corrugator. 

Ciliaris  is  a very  fmall  portion  of  this  mufcle, 
next  the  ciliary  cartilages  of  the  eyelids. 

Elevator 


74 


Of  THE  MUSCLES. 


Elevator  palpebrse  fuperioris  reftus  rifes  above 
the  optic  nerve,  from  the  periofteum  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  orbit,  as  do  alfo  the  five  following 
miifcles,  and  is  inferted  into  the  whole  ciliary 
cartilage  of  the  upper  eyelid  by  a very  thin 
flat  tendon. 

Elevator  oculi  arifes  from  the  bottom  of  the 
orbit,  between  the  optic  nerve  and  the  foregoing 
mufcle,  and  is  inferted  in  the  upper  part  of  the  tu- 
nica fclerotis  of  the  eye,  near  the  cornea. 

Deprefl'or  oculi  arifes,  and  is  inferted  directly 
oppofite  the  laft  deferibed  mufcle. 

Addudor  oculi  aiifes  from  the  bottom  of  the 
orbit,  near  the  optic  nerve  internally,  and  is  in- 
ferted into  the  tunica  fclerotis  on  the  fide  next 
the  nofe.' 

Abdudlor  oculi  has  both  its  origin  and  infer- 
tlon  diredlly  oppofite  to  the  adduilor. 

Obliquus  fupericr  feu  trochlearis  arifes  between 
the  elevator  and  addudeor  oculi  at  the  bottom 
of  the  orbit,  thence  afeending  by  the  futura  tranf- 
vcrfalis,  becomes  a round  tendon,  which  paffing 
through  a pulley  at  the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the 
orbit  near  its  edge,  is  inferted  near  the  bottom  of 
the  globe  of  the  eye,  which  it  pulls  upward  and 
inward,  and  thereby  directs  the  pupil  outward  and 
downward. 

Obliquus  inferior  arifes  from  the  os  rnaxil- 
Ix  fuperioris,  at  the  edg?  of  the  orbit ; thence 
paffing  over  the  deprefibr  is  inferted  near  the  ab- 

dudlOi 


Of  the  muscles. 


75 

dudior  at  the  bottom  of  the  eye,  but  not  fo  low 
as  the  infertion  of  the  obliquus  fuperior  : it  turns 
the  pupil  upward  and  outward. 

Thefe  mufcles  are  inferted  with  great  advan- 
tage to  move  a fmall  weight,  and  are  very  long, 
that  the  eye  may  be  moved  with  fufEcient  quick- 
nefs.  The  two  oblique  mufcles  are  an  axis  to  the 
motions  of  the  other  four,  and  ading  ftrongly 
ae:ainft  them,  which  adion  I take  to  be  what  is 
vulgarly  called  ftraining  the  eye,  may,  I think, 
bring  the  cryftalline  humour  nearer  to  the  retina, 
and  poffibly  may  make  the  cryftalline  humour 
more  flat  to  fit  the  eye  for  objeds  at  a great  dif- 
tance.  For  this  end  it  feems  to  me  that  there  are 
fix  mufcles  thus  difpofed,  when  three  might  be 
fufficient  to  turn  the  eye  every  way,  if  it  was  in  a 
proper  fixed  focket : and  it  feems  alfo,  that  while 
the  mufcles  are  all  thus  in  adion,  the  fuperior  ob- 
lique in  each  eye  fets  the  pupil  farther  from  the 
nofe,  while  the  inferior  oblique  direds  it  upward  ; 
the  firft  of  which  adions  is  always  nccelTary,  and 
the  latter  often  fo,  when  we  look  with  both  eyes 
at  very  diftant  objeds  ; and  when  the  two  oblique 
mufcles  grow  weak  by  age  or  difeafe,  or  ceafe  to 
ad  at  all,  as  in  paralytic  cafes,  and  death,  then  the 
eye  finks  in  the  orbit. 

Sphinder,  or  conftridor  oris,  furrounds  the 
iitouth  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  broad.  This 
mufcle  is  very  much  intermixed  with  all  the  muf- 
des  that  are  inferted  into  it, 

F 2 


Elevator 


76 


Of  the  muscles. 


Elevator  labii  fuperioris  proprius  arifes  from 
the  bone  of  the  upper  jav/  under  the  anterior  and 
inferior  part  of  the  orbicularis  palpebrarum,  and 
ufually  takes  another  fmall  beginning  from  the  os 
mals,  which  feems  as  if  it  was  fent  off  from  the 
orbicularis  palpebrarum  ; and  pafTing  dovN^n  by  the 
iide  of  the  nofe,  into  which  it  fends  fome  fibres,  is 
inferted  into  the  upper  part  of  the  fphinfter  oris. 
This  raifes  the  upper  lip,  and  helps  to  dilate  the 
ncfirils. 

Deprefibr  labii  fuperioris  proprius  is  a fmall 
mufcle  arifing  from  the  upper  jaw,  near  the  dentes 
inciforii,  and  is  inferted  into  the  upper  part  of  the 
lip  and  root  of  the  cartilages  of  the  nofe  ; hence  it 
is  alfo  a deprefibr  of  the  nofe,  which  abtion  con- 
Ifrifts  the  noftrils. 

Depreffor  labii  inferioris  proprius  arifes  broad 
from  the  lower  jaw  at  the  chin,  and  is  foon  infert- 
ed into  the  fphinfler  oris ; the  order  of  fibres  in 
this  feems  not  fo  confpicuous  as  in  the  other  muf- 
cles  of  the  face. 

Elevator  labii  inferioris  proprius  arifes  from  the 
lower  jaw,  near  the  dentes  inciforii,  and  is  infert- 
ed into  the  lower  part  of  the  Up. 

Elevator  labiorum  communis  arifes  from  a de- 
prefied  part  of  the  fuperior  maxilla  under  the  mid- 
dle of  the  orbit,  and  is  inferted  into  the  fphinder 
mufcle  near  the  corner  of  the  mouth.  * 

Deprefibr  communis  labiorum  arifes  later- 
ally from  the  lower  jaw  near  the  chin,  and  is 

inferted 


tnferted  into  the  fphincter  oppofite  to  the  for- 
mer. 

Zygomaticus  arifes  from  the  anterior  part  of 
the  os  zygoma  or  malse,  and  frequently  derives  a 
portion  of  fibres  from  the  orbicularis  palpebrarum, 
thence  running  obliquely  downwards.  It  is  inferted 
into  the  fphindier  at  the  corner  of  the  mouth,  be- 
twixt the  elevator  communis  and  buccinator ; it 
•draws  the  corner  of  the  mouth  outward  and  upward. 
When  this  mufcle  grows  weak,  the  corner  of  the 
mouth  finks,  as  may  be  obferved  in  old  perfons. 

Buccinator  arifes  from  the  proceffus  coronse 
of  the  lower  jaw,  and  palling  contiguous  to  both 
Jaws,  is  inferted  into  the  fphindter  mufcle  at  the 
corner  of  the  mouth.  It  ferves  either  to  force 
breath  out  of  the  mouth,  or  thrufi;  the  aliment 
between  the  teeth  in  maftication,  or  to  pull  the 
corner  of  the  mouth  outward. 

Piatyfina  myoides  arifes  ioofely  from  over  the 
pedoral  and  part  of  the  deltoid  mufcle,  and  run- 
ning oblfquely  forward,  is  inferted  into  the  chin, 
and  deprefibr  mufcles  of  the  lips.  This  mufcle 
being  exceeding  thin,  a mere  membrana  carno- 
la,  ferves  to  cover  the  unequal  fiirface  of  the 
fubjacent  mufcles,  and  render  the  neck  even  ; it 
alfo  pulls  down  the  corner  of  the  mouth,  and,  from 
its  inlertion  at  the  chin,  may  contribute  to  the  pull- 
ing down  of  tjie  lower  jaw. 

Retradior  alse  nafi  is  a very  fmall  mufcle  arlf- 
ing  from  the  bone  of  the  nofe,  and  is  inferted 


Of  the  muscles. 

into  the  fkin  and  cartilage  at  the  fide  of  the 
nofe. 

Mylohyoldeus  with  its  fellow  may  be  efteem- 
cd  one  pennifonn  or  elfe  a digaftric  miifcle.  It 
arifes  from  the  linea  afpera  on  the  infide  of  the 
lower  jaw  and  procefllis  innominatiis,  both  fides 
meeting  at  about  right  angles  in  a middle  line  upon 
the  following  mufcles.  It  is  inferted  by  a finall 
portion  of  fibres  into  the  bafis  of  the  os  hyoides  j 
it  moves  the  tongue  upward  and  forward,  and  aifo 
comprefles  the  following  mufcles,  whereby  they 
raife  the  tongue  more  commodioufly,  and  alfo  hin- 
ders them  from  drawing  the  bafis  of  the  os  hyoi- 
des into  a right  line  betwixt  the  chin  and  fternum 
at  fnch  times  as  the  ftylohyoidei  cannot  a£l:. 

Geniohyoideus  arifes  from  the  procelfus  in- 
nominatus  of  the  lower  jaw,  under  the  foregoing 
^ufcle,  and  is  inferted  into  the  bafis  of  the  os  hy- 
oides which  it  pulls  upward  and  forward.  This, 
with  its  fellow,  are  for  the  mod  part  but  one 
mufcle. 

Stylohyoideus  arifes  from  the  proceffus  ftyli- 
formis,  near  its  root,  and  paffing  contiguous  to  the 
horn  of  the  os  hyoides  becomes  inferted  laterally 
4nto  its  bafis.  This  mufcle  is  fometimes  perforated 
about  the  middle,  by  the  tendon  of  the  digaftric 
mufcle  of  the  lower  jaw.  Its  ufe  is  to  pull  the  os 
hyoides  up  and  backward. 

Coracohyoideus  arifes  from  the  upper  cofta 
of  the  fcapula,  near  the  proceifus  coracoides,  and 


Of  the  muscle  S. 


79 

paffing  under  the  maflo’deus  inufcle  becomes  in 
that  place  a round  tendon  ; thence  paffing  almoft 
parallel  to  the  following  mufcle,  is  inferted  togeth- 
er with  it  into  the  bahs  of  the  os  hyoides ; this 
draws  the  os  hyoides  downward,  and  a little  back- 
ward. I have  once  feen  one  of  thefe  mufcles  w^ant- 
rng,  and  the  fternohyoideus  arihng  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  clavicle  on  that  fide. 

Sternohyoideus  arifes  from  a roughnefs  at  the 
under  part  of  the  clavicula  near  the  fternum., 
and  the  cartilaginous  part  of  the  firft  rib  ; and  is 
inferted  into  the  bafis  of  the  os  hyoides,  to  pull  it 
downward. 

Geniogloffus  arifes  from  the  procefFus  innom- 
inatus  of  the  lower  jaw’",  and  is  inferted  broad 
into  the  under  part  of  the  tongue,  to  pull  it  up  and 
forward,  and  fometimes  has  a fmall  infertion  into 
the  os  hyoides. 

Bafiogloffus  feems  a portion  of  the  former  muf- 
cle ; it  arifes  from  the  balls  of  the  os  hyoides,  and 
is  inferted  into  the  tongue  nearer  its  tip. 

Ceratogloflus  arifes  from  the  horn  of  the  os  hy- 
oides, and  is  laterally  inferted  into  the  tongue 
near  its  root,  to  pull  it  downward  and  forward. 

Stylogloffus  arifes  from  the  extremity  of  the 
procelfus  ftyliformis,  and  is  inferted  into  the  tongue 
near  the  former  to  pull  it  up  and  backward.  I 
have  very  often  found  another  ftyloid  mufcle  fo  in- 
ferted, that  I cannot  tell  whether  to  call  it  a mufcle 
of  the  tongue  or  pharynx. 


The 


8o 


Of  the  M U S G L E S. 

The  tongue  Is  a ir/urde  made  of  fibres,  lon- 
gitudinal, circular,  and  tranfverfe,  fo  Intermixed  as 
beft  to  ferve  its  feveral  motions. 

Elypothyroidcus  or  Ceratothyroideus,  arifes 
from  part  of  the  bafis,  and  the  horn  of  the  os  hy- 
oides,  and  is  inferted  into  the  lower  part  of  the 
cartilage  thyroides,  to  pull  it  forward. 

Sternothyroideus  arifes  from  the  infide  of  the 
flernum,  and  is  inferted  with  the  former  ; it  pulls 
the  thyroid  cartilage  diredtly  downward. 

Cricothyroideus  arifes  from  the  anterior  part 
of  the  cartilago  cricoides,  and  running  obliquely  up- 
ward and  outward,  is  foon  inferted  into  the  infide 
of  the  cartilago  thyroides,  which  it  pulls  towards 
the  cartilago  cricoides.  Both  this  mufcle  and  its 
fellow  for  the  mofi;  part  appear  double. 

Cricoarytsenoideus  pofticus  arifes  from  the  back  • 
part  of  the  cartilago  cricoides,  and  is  inferted  into 
the  arytsnoides  to  pull  it  backward. 

Cricoarytsenoideus  lateralis  arifes  laterally  from 
the  cartilago  cricoides,  and  is  inferted  laterally  into 
the  aiytsenoides.  This,  with  its  fellow,  pull  down 
each  cartilage  toward  their  origin,  and  thereby 
dilate  the  rimuia. 

Thyroarytsenoideus  arifes  from  the  fuperior, 
middle,  and  inner  part  of  the  cartilago  thyroides, 
and  is  inferted  with  the  former  into  the  ary- 
tsenoides  cartilage  to  dilate  the  rimuia.  Thefe 
tyro  laid  deferibed  mufcles  are  not  naturally  divided, 
and  therefore  ought  to  be  accounted  but  one  mufcle. 

Arytsenoideu^ 


Of  the  muscles. 


8i 


ArytfEnoideus  is  one  fmgle  mufcle,  which  arifes 
from  one  ary^tasnoidal  cartilage,  and  is  inferted  in- 
to the  other,  to  draw  them  together,  and  clofe  the 
rimula.  Thefe  few  fmall  mufcles  of  the  tongue 
and  larynx,  with  only  one  pipe,  make  a great  va- 
riety of  notes  and  founds  that  can  be  made  by  ar- 
tificial inftruments,  and  that  in  a manner  fo  little 
underftood  by  us,  and  by  organs  fo  little  differing 
from  thofe  in  quadrupeds,  that,  for  aught  we  know 
of  them,  brutes  might  be  as  capable  of  all  thefe 
founds  as  men. 

Stylopharyngsus  arifes  from  near  the  bottom 
of  the  proceffus  ftyloides  of  the  os  petrofam, 
and  running  obliquely  do-wnward,  is  infert- 
ed into  the  pharynx.  This  mufcle,  with  its 
fellow,  pulls  up  and  dilates  the  pharynx  to  receive 
the  aliment. 

CEfophageus  arifes  like  a wing  from  feverai 
parts  of  the  fcull,  tongue,  os  liyoides,  the  cricoid 
and  thyroid  cartilages,  and  is  inferted  into  the 
pharynxj  This,  with  its  fellow,  conftringes  the 
pharynx,  and  preiTes  the  aliment  dov/n  the  gullet. 

Mufculus  vaginalis  guise  is  the  mufcular  coat 
of  the  gula. 

Ptei^gopharyngSEUs  is  not  a diftind;  mufcle, 
but  the  beginning  of  the  pharynx  near  the  pro- 
cefiiis  pterygoides  of  the  fphenoidal  bone. 

Pterygoftaphylinus  internus  arifes  from  the 
cs  fphenoides,  near  the  iter  ad  palatum,  or 
eiufachian  tube,  and  is  inferted  into  the  uvula, 

which 


82 


Of  the  muscle  S. 


which  it  pulls  up  while  we  breathe  through  the 
mouth,  or  fwallow, 

Pterygo-ftaphylinus  externus  arifes  by  the 
fide  of  the  iaft  deferibed  mufcle,  and  is  alfo  in- 
ferted  near  it ; but  becomes  its  antagonift  by  be- 
ing reflected  on  a pully,  over  a procefs  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  pterygoidal  procefles  of  the  fphe- 
noidal  bone. 

Gloflb-ftaphylinus  is  a very  fmall  portion  of 
mufcular  fibres,  which  pafs  from  the  tongue  to 
the  palate,  which  it  pulls  down  when  we  breathe 
through  the  nofe. 

The  palate  itfeif  is  a fort  of  double  mufclc, 
whofe  aftion  feems  only  to  fupport  itfeif,  and  affifl: 
thofe  mufcles  which  pull  it  upwards. 

Digaftricus  arifes  from  finus  of  the  mammih 
lary  procefs  of  the  os  temporis,  and,  from  a flefhy 
belly  becoming  a round  tendon,  palfes  through, 
and  fometimes  under,  the  flylohyoideus  mufcle  ; I 
and  then,  being  tied  down  by  a ligament  to  the  os  ! 
hyoides,  grows  flefhy,  and  is  fo  inferted  into  the 
anterior  part  of  the  lower  jarv  internally.  This 
mufcle’s  diredUon  being  altered  by  its  being  tied  to 
the  os  hyoides,  where  it  makes  an  angle,  and  not 
at  its  pafl'age  through  the  flylohyoideus,  pulls  the 
lower  jaw  downward  with  much  greater  force 
than  othervnfe  it  could  have  done  j and  being  con- 
nedted  to  the  os  hyoides,  when  it  affs,  it  prevents 
the  adtion  of  feveral  mufcles  which  are  concerned 
in  fwallowing ; whence  it  is  that  we  cannot  fwal- 

low 


Of  the  muscle  S.  83 

low  at  the  fame  time  that  we  open  the  jaw,  as 
thofe  brutes  can  whofe  digaftric  mufcles  are  not 
connected  to  that  bone. 

Temporalis  arifes  from  the  os  frontis,  parie- 
tale,  fphenoides,  malse,  and  temporis,  and,  paffing 
under  the  two  proceffes  named  os  jugale,  is  inferted 
externally  into  the  proceflus  coronalis  of  the  lower 
jaw,  which  it  pulls  upward.  This  mufcl^e  is  cov« 
ered  with  a flrong  tendinous  fafeia. 

MalTeter  arifes  from  the  lower  edge  of  the 
os  mal^  or  zygoma,  and  the  procefs  which  joins 
this  from  the  temporal  bone,  and  is  inferted  into  the 
outer  part  of  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  it 
pulls  up  and  fonA’-ard.  Thefe  two  lafi;  deferibed 
mufcles  having  different  directions,  when  they  aCt 
together,  make  a fteddy  motion  in  the  diagonal  of 
their  directions. 

Pterygoideus  internus  arifes  from  the  pro- 
ceffus  pterygoideus  externus,  and  from  the  hnus 
between  the  pterygoid  proceffes,  and  is  inferted 
internally  into  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw,  which 
k pulls  upward. 

Pterygoideus  externus  arifes  from  the  os  max- 
illare  and  os  fphenoides,  near  the  root  of  the  exter- 
nal pterygoid  procefs,  and  is  inferted  internally 
into  the  proceffus  condyloides  of  the  lower  jaw, 
which  it  pulls  to  one  fide,  and  forwards,  or  aCling 
with  its  fellow  pulls  the  jaw  direCtly  forward. 

Subclavius  arifes  from  the  fuperior  part  of  the 
(iffl  rib,  and  is  inferted  into  more  than  half  the 

undcrfide 


Of  the  muscles. 


84 

underfide  of  the  ciavicula  next  the  fcapula.  Its  ufe 
is  to  draw  the  ciavicula  toward  the  fternum,  that 
they  may  not  be  fevered  in  the  motions  of  the 
fcapula. 

Trapezius  arifes  from  the  os  occipitis,  and 
from  a linea  alba  colli,  from  the  fpinal  procefs  of 
the  laft  vertebra  of  the  neck,  and  the  ten  upper- 
moft  of  the  back,  and  from  a linea  alba  between 
all  thefe  proceffes  ; and  is  inferted  into  one  third  of 
the  clavicle  next  the  fcapula,  almod  all  the  back 
part  of  the  fpine  of  the  fcapula,  and  as  much  of 
the  proceiTus  acromion  as  lies  between  the  fpine  of 
the  fcapula  and  the  clavicle.  This  mufcle  draws 
the  fcapula  diredlly  backward. 

It  is  generally  faid  by  authors,  that  the  feveral 
parts  of  this  mufcle  a61i  at  different  times,  and  fo 
pull  the  ffapula  different  ways,  as  obliquely  up- 
ward, downward,  or  backward ; but,  I think,  if 
that  happened,  it  muff  neceffarily  divide  this  muf- 
cle into  diftindt  portions,  thofe  that  contrad;  always 
feparating  from  thofe  that  do  not. 

Rhomboides  arifes  tendinous  under  the  former 
from  the  fpinal  procefs  of  the  inferior  vertebra  of 
the  neck,  part  of  the  linea  alba  colli,  and  from  the 
fpinal  proceffes  of  the  four  or  five  uppermoft  ver- 
tebras of  the  thorax,  and  is  inferted  into  the  balls 
of  the  fcapula,  which  it  pulls  up  and  backward. 
The  upper  part  of  this  mufcle  arifmg  from  the 
neck,  is,  in  many  bodies,  by  the  motions  of  the 
neck,  feparated  and  made  a diftind  mufcle. 

Elevator 


Of  the  muscle  S. 


S5 

Elevator  fcapulse  arifes  from  the  tranfverfc 
procelTes  of  the  four  fuperior  vertebrse  of  the 
neck,  and  is  inferted  into  the  upper  angle  of  the 
fcapula. 

Serratus  minor  anticus  arifes  under  the  ped;o- 
ralis,  from  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  ribs,  and 
is  inferted  into  the  proceffus  coracoides  fcapu- 
la?, which  it  pulls  forward  and  downward.  This 
mufcle  is  aWays  faid  to  be  an  elevator  of  the  ribs, 
though  it  arifes  from  the  fcapula,  w'-hich  is  fup- 
ported  by  the  ribs. 

Serratus  major  anticus  arifes  from  the  anterior 
part  of  the  eight  fuperior  ribs,  and  is  inferted 
into  the  balls  of  the  fcapula,  which  it  draws  for- 
ward, and  by  that  means  moves  the  focket  of  the 
fcapula  upward.  This  mufcle  has  been  always 
accounted  an  elevator  coftarum,  though  each  por- 
tion of  it  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  rib  it  rifes  from. 

All  the  mufcles  inferted  into  the  bafis  of  the 
fcapula  are  alfo  inferted  into  one  another. 

Pecftoralls  arifes  from  near  two  thirds  of  the 
clavicula,  next  the  fternum,  and  all  the  length  of 
the  os  pedioris,  and  from  the  cartilages  of  the  ribs, 
and  is  inferted  into  the  os  humeri,  between  the  bi- 
ceps and  the  infeition  of  the  deltoides.  The  ufe  of 
it  is  to  draw  the  arm  forward.  A fmall  portion  of 
the  lower  part  of  this  mufcle  is  often  confounded 
with  the  obliquus  defcendens  abdominis  ; and  in 
fome  bodies,  neither  the  upper  part,  nor  its  tendon, 
can  be  eafily  feparated  from  the  deltoides  j and  in 

others. 


86 


Of  the  muscles. 


others,  even  that  part  of  it  that  arifes  from  the 
claricula  is  a diftind;  portion.  Near  the  infertion 
of  this  mufcle  the  fibres  crofs  thofe  from  below, 
ending  above  in  the  arm,  and  thofe  from  above 
below,  that  the  tendon  of  this  mufcle  might  not 
lie  inconveniently  low  between  the  arm  and  thorax, 
as  it  would  have  done  had  the  fibres  which  arife 
loweft  from  the  fternum  been  inferred  loweft  in  the 
arm  ; but  this  croffing  does  not  make  the  tendon 
at  all  ftronger,  as  is  often  faid  ; nor  can  I fee  how 
it  came  to  be  thought  that  this  tendon  Ihould  want 
more  firength  in  proportion  than  other  tendons. 

Deltoides  arifes  exadly  oppofite  to  the  infer- 
tion  of  the  trapezius,  from  one  third  part  of,  the 
clavicula,  from  the  acromion  and  fpine  of  the  fca- 
pula,  and  is  inferted  tendinous  near  the  middle  of 
the  os  humeri,  which  bone  it  lifts  diredly  upward. 
The  outermoft  parts  of  this  mufcle,  when  the  arm 
hangs  down,  lie  below  the  centre  of  motion  of  the 
joint,  and  therefore  can  have  no  fhare  in  lifting  the 
humerus  up,  till  it  is  raifed  part  of  the  way  by  the 
other  part  of  this  mufcle,  and  the  following  mufcle ; 
and  as  the  outer  parts  of  this  mufcle  begin  to  ad;, 
the  following  mulcle  ads  with  lefs  advantage : 
and  it  feems  to  me,  that  the  foie  reafon  why  this 
mufcle  is  made  of  fo  many  parts,  is,  that  they 
may  ad  independently  ; for  it  is  demonftrable,  that 
this  mufcle,  when  the  whole  of  it  ads,  cannot  raife 
the  arm  with  lb  great  advantage  as  a right  lined 
mufcle  of  the  fame  rnasrnitude  would  have  done. 

Suprafpinatus 


Of  the  M U S C L E S. 


*7 

Suprafpinatus  arifes  from  the  dorfum  fcapulse 
above  the  fpine,  and  paffing  between  the  two  pro- 
ceffes,  is  inferred  into  the  upper  part  of  the  os  hu- 
meri, which  it  helps  to  raife  until  it  becomes  par- 
allel with  the  fpina  fcapulse. 

The  fuprafpinatus,  the  deltoides,  and  coracobra- 
chialis  affift  in  all  the  motions  of  the  humerus  except 
depreffion ; it  being  necelfary  that  the  arm  fhould 
be  raifed  and  fuftained,  in  order  to  move  it  to  any 
fide. 

Infrafpinatus  arifes  from  the  dorfum  fcapulse 
below  the  fpine,  and  is  inferted,  wrapping  over 
part  of  it,  at  the  fide  of  the  head  of  the  os  humeri ; 
it  turns  the  arm  fupine  and  backward  ; for  there  is 
a prone  and  fupine  rotatory  motion  of  the  hume- 
rus of  near  ninety  degrees. 

Teres  minor  is  a fmall  mufcle  arifmg  below 
the  former  from  the  inferior  cofta  fcapulse,  and  is 
inferted  together  with  it.  It  affifts  the  former  in 
turning  the  arm  fupine,  but  pulls  it  more  down- 
wards. 

Teres  major  arifes  from  the  lower  angle  of  the 
fcapula,  and  is  inferted  at  the  under  part  of  the  os 
humeri,  about  three  fingers  breadth  from  the  head. 
This  draws  the  os  humeri  toward  the  lower  angle 
©f  the  fcapula,  and  turns  the  arm  prone  and  back- 
ward. 

Latiffimus  dorfi  arifes  by  a fiat  tendon  from 
the  fpinal  procefTes  of  the  feven  or  eight  inferior 
vertebras  of  the  back,  and  thofe  of  the  loins,  fa- 

crum. 


88 


Of  the  muscle  S. 


crum,  and  ilium  : and  growing  flelliy,  after  it  has 
pafied  the  extenfors  of  the  trunk,  receives  another 
fmall  flefhy  beginning  from  the  ninth,  tenth,  and 
eleventh  ribs,  and  is  inferted  into  the  os  humeri, 
with  the  former.  This  turns  the  arm  backward, 
and  prone.  The  tendon  of  this  mufcle  ferves  for 
a membrane  to  the  extenfors  of  the  back,  and  is 
connedled  to  the  tranfverfe  proceffes  of  the  verte- 
brse  lumborum. 

Subfcapularis  arifes  from  the  hollow  fide  of 
the  fcapula,  which  it  fills  up,  and  is  inferted  in- 
to the  head  of  the  os  humeri,  wrapping  fome- 
v^rhat  over  it.  This  pulls  the  arm  to  the  fide  and 
prone. 

Coracobrachialis  arifes  from  the  procefTus  cora- 
coides  fcapulae,  in  common  with  the  origin  of  one 
head  of  the  biceps,  and  is  inferted  into  the  os  hu- 
meri internally  about  its  middle.  This  raifes  the 
arm,  and  turns  it  fomewhat  outw^ard. 

Biceps  cubiti  flexor  arifes  with  two  heads, 
that  the  fibres  of  this  mufcle  might  not  comprefs 
one  another,  one  from  the  procefTus  coracoides  fca- 
pulae, in  common  with  the  coracobrachialis  muf- 
cle, and  the  other  by  a round  tendon  from  the  edge 
of  the  acetabulum  fcapulae,  which  pafTing  in  a ful-  ' 
cus  of  the  os  humeri,  afterward  becomes  flefhy, 
and  joins  the  firfl;  head  to  be  inferted  with  it  into 
the  tubercle  of  the  radius ; and  fometimes  this 
mufcle  has  a third  head,  which  arifes  from  the 
middle  of  the  os  humeri.  This  mufcle  lifts  up  the 

humerus. 


Of  the  muscles,  Sg 

humerus,  bbids  the  cubit,  and  has  as  great  a ihare 
as  any  one  mufcle  in  turning  the  cubit  fupine  ; the 
humerus  being  fixed  by  other  mufclcs,  the  whole 
force  of  this  mufcle  will  be  exerted  upon  the  cu- 
bit ; or  the  cubit  being  fixed  by  an  extenfor,  the 
whole  force  of  it  will  be  fpent  in  raifing  the  arm, 
and  therefore  ought  to  be  always  reckoned  among 
thofe  that  raife  a weight  at  arms  length.  A punc- 
ture of  the  tendinous  expanfion  of  this  mufcle  is 
fuppofed  to  be  always  attended  with  grievous  pain 
and  inflammation,  and  has,  if  we  have  not  mif- 
taken  the  caufe,  often  proved  mortal  ; yet  many 
eminent  furgeons  have  given  inftances  of  larger 
tendons  being  cut  and  ftitched,  without  any  bad 
fymptoms  ; and  we  have  often  feen  them  cut, 
torn,  ulcerated,  and  mortified,  without  any  more 
fign  of  pain  than  in  other  parts.  So  that  I can- 
not fee  what  the  great  mnfehief  of  pricking  this 
tendinous  fafeia  is  owing  to,  unlef&  its  lying  fo 
much  upon  the  ftretch,  which  m^ay  be  wholly 
avoided  by  bending  the  elbow,  and  turning  the 
cubit  prone.  Since  I have  confidered  this  cafe, 
I have  met  with  one  who  was  thus  injured  by 
an  injudicious  blood-letter,  who  ordered  the  pa- 
tient to  keep  her  arm  extended  for  fear  of  a con- 
tradlion,  and  fhe  was  not  wuthout  the  mofl;  violent 
pain  for  a whole  fortnight ; but  upon  bending  the 
cubit,  and  turning  the  arm  prone,  fhe  grew  prefi- 
ently  eafy,  and,  in  a few  days,  well.  Neverthe- 
lefs,  I am  perfuaded,  that  mofl;  of  the  accidents 
G which 


Of  the  muscles. 


90 

which  are  thought  to  be  merely  from  blood-let- 
ting, are  critical  difcharges  of  fome  difeafe,  and 
from  the  pimfture  a fmall  inflammation  begin- 
ning, increafes  and  fuppurates.  But  however  fin- 
gular  I may  be  thought  in  this  opinion,  I can  be 
fure  I am  difmterefled  in  it,  having  never  had  any 
ill  accident  follow  blood-letting  in  my  life. 

Brachiseus  internus  arifes  from  below  the  mid-f 
die  of  the  os  humeri,  and  is  infcrted  into  a rough 
place  of  the  ulna,  imm.ediately  below  the  junc- 
ture. This  alfo  bends  the  cubit. 

Supinator  radii  longus  arifes  from  the  lower 
and  outer  part  of  the  os  humeri,  and  is  infert- 
ed  into  the  upper  fide  of  the  radius,  near  the 
carpus.  This  mufcle  is  not  a fupinator  but  a 
bender  of  the  cubit,  and  that  with  a longer  lev- 
er than  either  of  the  two  former  mufcles,  and 
Is  lefs  concerned  in  turning  the  cubit  fupine, 
than  either  the  extenfors  of  the  carpus,  fingers, 
or  thumb. 

Triceps  extenfor  cubiti,  commonly  diflin- 
guifhed  into  biceps  and  brachiteus  externus.  The 
firfl:  of  thefe  heads  arifes  from  the  lower  cofta  of 
the  fcapula  near  the  acetabulum  ; the  fecond  from 
the  outer  and  back  part  of  the  os  humeri ; the 
third,  lower  and  more  internal  ; and  are  inferted 
into  the  proceflus  olecranon  of  the  ulna.  The 
firfl:  of  thefe  heads  draws  the  arm  backward,  with 
as  long  a lever  as  it  extends  the  cubit. 


Anconastis 


Of  the  muscles. 


91 

Anconaeus  arifes  from  the  outward  extuberance 
of  the  os  humeri,  and  is  inferred  into  the  upper 
part  of  the  ulna  : this  is  alfo  an  extenfor. 

Palmaris  longus  arifes  fmall  from  the  inner  extu- 
berance of  the  os  humeri,  and  from  a fhort  belly  foon 
becomes  a tendon,  which  is  connected  to  the  lig- 
amentum  tranfverfale  carpi,  and  expanded  in  the 
palm  of  the  hand.  This  mufcle  is  often  wanting, 
but  the  expanfion  in  the  hand  never  ; yet  it  being 
connected  to  the  ligament  of  the  carpus,  it  muft 
bend  the  carpus,  and  cannot  conftrid;  the  palm  of 
the  hand  ; and  when  it  is  wanting,  the  flexor  car- 
pi radialis  is  larger. 

Palmaris  brevis,  or  caro  quadrata,  arifes  obfcure- 
ly  from  the  ligamentum  tranfverfale  cai*pi,  and 
feems  to  be  inferred  into  the  eighth  bone  of  the  car- 
pus, and  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  little  finger. 
This  helps  to  conftridt  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  is 
ver}'-  different  in  fize  in  different  bodies. 

Flexor  carpi  radialis  arifes  from  the  inner  extube- 
rance of  the  os  humeri,  and  foon  becoming  a ftrong 
tendon,  paffes  through  a channel  of  the  fifth  bone 
of  the  carpus,  and  is  inferred  into  the  metacarpal 
bone  of  the  fore-finger.  This  not  only  bends  the 
carpus  upon  the  radius,  but  alfo  the  bones  of  the 
fecond  order  upon  thofe  of  the  firfl;  ; v/hich  mo- 
tion is  nearly  as  much  as  that  upon  the  radius. 

Flexor  carpi  ulnaris  arifes  from  the  fame  extu- 
berance with  the  former,  and  a fafeia  betwixt  this 
mufcle  and  the  tenfor  ulnaris  contiguous  to  the 
G 2 ulna, 


Of  the  muscle  S. 


92 

ulna,  and  is  inferted  by  a fliort  tendon  into  the 
fourth  bone  of  the  carpus. 

Extenfores  carpi  radiales ; the  firft  arifes  from 
the  os  humeri,  immediately  below  the  fupinator 
radii  longus,  and  is  inferted  into  the  metacarpal 
bone  of  the  firft  finger ; the  fecond  arifes  immedi- 
ately below  this,  from  the  outer  extuberance  of  the 
0$  humeri,  and  is  inferted  into  the  metacarpal  bone 
of  the  fecond  linger.  The  firft  of  thefe  mufcles  is 
a bender  of  the  cubit,  as  well  as  an  extenfor  of  the 
carpus,  and  its  often  adding  with  the  benders  of  the 
cubit  while  the  other  is  not  in  addion,  is  the  rea- 
fon  why  it  is  fo  diftindd  from  it. 

Extenfor  ulnaris  arifes  from  the  fame  extube- 
rance with  the  former,  and  half  the  ulna  below  the 
anconeus  mufcle  ; then  becoming  a tendon,  runs 
in  a fmall  finus  at  the  bottom  of  the  ulna,  and  is 
inferted  into  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  little  fin- 
ger. See  Ulna,p-  31,32.  The  extenfors  of  the 
carpus  being  inferted  into  the  metacarpus,  at  once 
perform  the  motion  between  the  bones  of  the  car- 
pus, and  that  between  the  carpus  and  radius.  The 
flexor  and  tenfor  ulnaris  adding  together  turn  the 
hand  downward,  the  tenfor  aud  flexor  radialis  up- 
ward. 

Perforatus,  or  flexor  fecundi  internodii  dig- 
itorum,  arifes  from  the  inner  tubercle  of  the 
os  humeri,  and  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
ulna,  and  the  middle  of  the  radius ; then  becom- 
ing four  ftrong  tendons,  palfes  under  the  ligamen- 

tum 


Of  the  muscles. 


93 

turn  tranfverfale  carpi,  and  is  inferted  into  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fecond  bone  of  each  finger. 

Perforans,  or  flexor  tertii  internodii  digitomm, 
arifes  from  half  the  ulna,  and  a great  part 
of  the  ligament  between  the  ulna  and  radius, 
then  becoming  four  tendons,  pafles  under  the  liga- 
mentum  tranfverfale  carpi,  and  through  ten- 
dons of  the  former  mufcle  to  their  infertion  into  the 
third  bone  of  each  finger.  The  tendons  of  both 
thefe  mufcles  are  tied  down  to  the  fingers  by  a 
ftrong  ligament.  If  thefe  mufcles  had  not  pafTed 
one  through  the  other,  the  perforatus,  which  is 
the  lefTer  mufcle,  mufl;  have  gone  to  the  lafl  joint 
where  the  flronger  mufcle  is  wanted  ; and,  befides, 
the  tendons  of  the  fecond  joints  would  have  prefled 
thofe  that  bend  the  laft,  and  not  lain  firmly  upon 
them  neither. 

Lumbricales,  or  flexores  primi  internodii 
digitorum,  arife  from  the  tendons  of  the  laft 
mentioned  mufcle,  and  are  inferted  laterally  to- 
ward the  thumb  into  the  beginning  of  the  firft 
bone  of  each  finger. 

Extenfor  digitorum  communis  arifes  from 
the  outer  extuberance  of  the  os  humeri,  and  pafling 
under  a ligament  at  the  wrift,  is  divided  into  four 
tendons,  which  communicate  upon  the  firft  joint, 
which  keeps  them  from  flic^ng  off  the  joints  of 
the  fingers,  where  they  are  a little  connefled  to  the 
firft  bones,  and  afterward  are  inferted  into  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fecond  bone  of  each  finger. 

Extenfor 


94 


Of  the  muscles. 


Extenfor  auricularis,  or  minimi  digit!  is  a por- 
tion of  the  laft  mufcle  pafTmg  under  the  ligament 
in  a diftindt  channel. 

Extenfor  indicis  arifes  from  the  middle  of  the. 
ulna,  and  paffing  under  the  ligament  of  the  car- 
pus, is  inferted  with  the  extenfor  communis  into 
the  fore-finger.  This  mufcle  extends  the  fore-fin- 
ger fingly,  I have  twice  feen  it  wanting. 

Abdudtor  primi  digit!,  interoflei,  and  abdudor 
minimi  digit!,  are  eight  mufcles,  one  for  each 
fide  of  each  finger.  Abdudor  primi  digit! 
arifes  from  the  firfi;  bone  of  the  thumb,  and  the 
fide  of  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  firft  finger. 
The  interoflei  are  three  pair,  fitly  divided  into 
external  and  internal ; the  external  arife  from 
the  metacarpal  bones,  whofe  fpaces  they  fill  up 
next  the  back  of  the  hand ; the  internal  arife 
from  the  fame  bones,  in  the  infide  of  the  hand. 
Abdudor  minimi  digit!  arifes  from  the  tranf- 
verfe  ligament,  and  fourth  bone  of  the  carpus ; 
thefe  mufcles  are  inferted,  two  into  the  firft  joint 
of  each  finger,  and  then  paffing  obliquely  oyer 
the  tops  of  the  fingers,  are  inferted  into  their  laft 
bones  ; they  bend  the  firft  joints,  and  extend  the 
two  laft,  as  in  holding  a pen,  and  in  playing  upon 
feme  mufical  inftruments.  The  abdudors  of  the 
fore  and  little  fingers,  with  the  fecond  and  fifth 
interofiei  mufcles  ading,  the  fingers  are  divari- 
cated, and  the  other  four  ading  bring  them  to- 
gether, and  thef^  mufcles  which  divaricate  the 

fingors. 


Of  the  muscle  S. 


95 

fingers,  being  extenders  of  the  fecond  and  third 
joints,  we  never  can  divaricate  them  without  ex- 
tending them  a little. 

Addudtorofiis  metacarpiminimi  digiti  arifes  from 
the  eighth  hone  and  tranfverfe  ligament  of  the 
carpus,  and  is  inferred  into  the  metacarpal  bone 
of  the  little  finger,  which  it  pulls  toward  the  thumb 
to  conftrid;  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

Extenfor  primi  internodii  pollicis  arifes  from 
the  ulna  below  the  anconeus  mufcle,  and  the  lig- 
ament between  the  ulna  and  radius ; then  becom- 
ing two,  three,  or  four  tendons,  is  inferted  into 
the  fifth  bone  of  the  carpus,  and  firft  of  the 
thumb.  The  firfl  of  thefe  infertions  can  only  af- 
fifl  the  bending  of  the  wrift  upward,  and  in  turn- 
ing the  arm  fupine. 

Extenfor  fecundi  internodii  pollicis  arifes  im- 
mediately below  the  former  from  the  radius  and 
tranfverfe  ligament,  and  is  inferted  by  a few  fi- 
bres into  the  fecond  bone  of  the  thumb,  but  chief- 
ly into  the  third. 

Extenfor  tertii  internodii  pollicis  arifes  im- 
mediately below  the  laft  deferibed,  from  the  ul- 
na and  ligament,  and  paffes  over  the  radius  near- 
er the  ulna,  to  be  inferted  at  the  third  bone  of  the' 
thumb.  This  extends  the  thumb  more  toward 
the  ulna  than  the  former  mufcle,  and  is  very  much 
a fupinator. 

Flexor  primi  et  fecundi  offis  pollicis  arifes 
from  the  fifth  bone  and  tranfverfe  ligament 

of 


Of  the  muscles. 


96 

of  the  carpus,  and  from  the  beginnings  of  the  two 
firft  metacarpal  bones,  and  is  infeited  into  the 
whole  length  of  the  firft  bone  of  the  thumb,  and 
tendinous  into  the  beginning  of  the  fecond ; the 
fefamoid  bones  of  the  thumb  in  fuch  bodies  as 
have  them,  lie  in  this  tendon,  where  it  pafles  over 
the  joint. 

Flexor  tertii  internodii  pollicis  arifes  large 
from  almoft  all  the  upper  part  of  the  radius, 
and  becoming  a round  tendon,  pafles  under  the 
ligamentum  tranfverfale  carpi,  to  be  infeited  into 
the  third  bone  of  the  thumb.  This  mufcle  fmgly 
acting,  draws  the  thumb  towards  the  'metacarpal 
bone  of  the  little  finger  ; but  the  laft  mentioned 
mufcle  adting  with  it,  turns  it  toward  the  fore- 
finger. 

Addudtor  pollicis  arifes  from  the  carpus, 
and  almoft  the  whole  length  of  the  metacarpal  bone 
of  the  long  finger,  and  is  inferted  into  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fecond  bone  of  the  thumb.  This  muf- 
cle  naturally  enough  divides  into  two,  and  might 
better  be  called  a flexor  than  addudtor. 

Abdudlor  pollicis  arifes  from  the  fifth  bone 
and  ligamentum  tranfverfale  of  the  carpus,  and 
is  inferted  laterally  into  the  beginning  of  the 
fecond  bone  of  the  thumb,  to  draw  it  toward  the 
radius. 

The  mufcles  which  bend  the  thumb  are  much 
lefs  than  thofe  which  bend  the  fingers ; neverthe- 
lefs  the  thumb  is  able  to  refift  all  the  fingers, 


Of  the  muscles. 


97 

merely  from  the  advantages  that  arife  from  the 
thicknefs  and  Ihortnefs  of  the  bones  of  the  thumb, 
compared  with  thofe  of  the  fingers  ; but  then  the 
quicknefs  of  motion  in  the  fingers  will  exceed  that 
of  the  thumb,  as  much  as  the  fingers  exceed  the 
thumb  in  length,  and  their  mufcles  thofe  of  the 
thumb  in  larger,  efs. 

Supinator  radii  brevis  arifes  from  the  outer 
extuberance  of  the  os  humeri  and  upper  part,  of 
the  ulna,  and  running  half  round  the  radius,  is  in- 
ferted  near  its  turbercle. 

Pronator  teres  arifes  from,  the  inner  apo- 
phyfis  of  the  os  humeri,  and  upper  and  fore-part  of 
the  ulna,  and  is  inferted  tendinous  into  the  radius 
below  the  former. 

Pronator  quadratus  arifes  from  the  lower 
edge  of  the  ulna,  near  the  carpus,  and  palling  under 
the  flexors  of  the  fingers  is  inferted  into  the  radius. 

Thefe  mufcles  are  occafionally  aflifted  in  their 
adlions  by  the  mufcles  of  the  hands,  the  extenfors 
affifling  the  fupinators,  and  the  flexors  the  prona- 
tors, and  moft  of  the  extenfors  of  the  hand  take  a 
great  part  of  their  origin  from  the  tendinous  fafcia 
that  covers  them. 

Mafloideus  arifes  tendinous  from  the  flernum 
near  the  clavicula,  and  by  a feparate  fleflry  por- 
tion from  the  clavicula,  which  foon  unites  -with 
the  other  beginning,  and  is  inferted  into  the  outer 
part  of  the  mammillary  procefs  of  the  temporal 
bone.  It  pulls  that  fide  of  the  head  it  is  inferted 

into 


Of  the  muscles. 


q8 

-X 

into  towards  the  fternum,  and  turns  the  face  to- 
ward the  contrary  fhoulder.  This,  and  its  fellow, 
pull  the  head  and  neck  toward  the  breaft,  and  aft, 
with  a much  longer  lever  upon  each  lower  verte- 
bra, than  they  do  upon  the  next  above,  and  with 
more  power  upon  any  of  thofe  joints  than  upon 
the  head.  This  mufcle  being  inferted  into  the 
head,  beyond  the  centre  of  motion  of  the  head 
with  the  firft  vertebra,  has  been  fuppofed,  by  feve- 
ral  anatom  ifts,  to  pull  the  head  backward  ; but  the 
palling  beyond  fignifies  nothing  to  that  purpofe, 
unlefs  a line  going  through  its  axis  Mmuld  pafs  be- 
low the  centre  of  motion  ; and  it  is  the  more  to  be 
wondered  how  this  miftake  prevailed,  if  we  confider 
that  this  mufcle’s  being  added  to  the  extenfors  of 
the  head  and  neck,  wmuld  make  the  force  of  that 
action  a hundred  times  greater  than  that  of  the 
benders.  And  if  this  is  not  enough  to  convince, 
let  any  one  lying  on  his  back  raife  his  head,  and 
he  will  foon  feel  this  mufcle  in  aftion ; but  bow- 
ing the  head  forward  in  an  ereft  pofture  will  not 
ihew  this,  unlefs  fomc  refiftance  is  made  to  the 
Itead,  becaufe  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  head  ly- 
ing before  the  centre  of  motion,  there  needs  no 
more  than  a relaxation  of  the  extenfors,  to  bring 
the  head  forward  in  that  pofture. 

Reftus  internus  major  ariles  from  the  anterior 
part  of  the  tranfverfe  procefles  of  the  third,  fourth 
filth,  and  fixth  cervical  vertebi'cE ; and  palling 
over  the  tveo  fuperior,  is  inferted  into  a rough- 

nefs 


Of  the  muscles. 


99 

Tiefs  of  the  occipital  bone  near  the  fore-part  of  the 
great  foramen.  This  bends  the  head  on  the  two 
hrft  vertebra  of  the  neck. 

Rediius  minor  internus  arifes  under  the  laft 
mufcle,  from  the  nrft  vertebra,  and  is  inferted 
under  it  into  the  os  occipitis.  This  bends  the  head 
on  the  firft  vertebra. 

Redtus  lateralis  arifes  from  the  anterior  part  of 
the  tranfverfe  procefs  of  the  hrft  vertebra  of  the 
neck,  and  is  inferted  into  the  os  temporis  and 
occipitis  between  the  mammillary  and  ftyloid  pro- 
ceffes.  This  turns  the  head  on  one  fide. 

Splenius  arifes  by  a thin  tendon  from  the  fpi- 
nal  procefles  of  the  five  fuperior  vertebrse  of  the 
thorax,  and  the  lowed;  of  the  neck,  and  linea  alba 
colli,  and  is  inferted  into  the  os  occipitis,  the  up- 
per part  of  the  mammillary  procefs  of  the  temporal 
bone,  and  the  tranfverfe  procefles  of  the  three 
fuperior  cervical  vertebrse.  This  pulls  the  head 
and  neck  backward,  and  to  the  contrary  fide ; but 
both  of  thefe  adfing  together  pull  them  diredcly 
backward. 

Complexus  arifes  from  the  tranfverfe  procefies 
of  the  fix  or  feven  fuperior  vertebra!  of  the  thorax  ; 
and  fix  inferior  of  the  neck,  and  is  inferted  into 
the  os  occipitis,  and  back  part  of  the  os  temporis ; 
this  laft  part  is  fometimes  diftindt  enough  to  be 
accounted  another  mufcle.  It  pulls  the  head  and 
neck  back, 


Redtus 


lOO 


Of  the  muscles. 


Re£lus  major  pofticus  arifes  from  the  fpinal  | 
proceifes  of  the  fecond  vertebra  of  the  neck,  and 
is  inferted  broader  into  the  os  occipitis.  It  pulls  j 
the  head  back  on  the  two  firft  vertebrae. 

Reftus  minor  pofticus  arifes  from  the  back 
part  of  the  hrft  vertebra  of  the  neck,  it  having  no  | 
fpinal  procefs,  and  is  inferted  below  the  former  into 
the  fame  bone,  to  pull  the  head  back  on  the  firft 
vertebra.  5 

Obliquus  fuperior  arifes  from  the  tranfverfe  | 
procefs  of  the  lirft  vertebra,  and  is  inferted  into  the  ,■ 
os  occipitis  and  back  part  of  the  os  temporis,  near  Iji 
the  reftus  m^ajor ; either  of  thefe  afting,  afiift  the  Ij, 
reflus  lateralis  on  the  fame  fide  ; but  both  together  i 
pull  the  head  back.  [ 

Obliquus  inferior  arifes  from  the  fpinal  procefs 
of  the  fecond  vertebra  of  the  neck,  and  is  in-  ! 

ferted  into  the  tranfverfe  procefs  of  the  firft.  ' 

This,  with  its  fellow,  alternately  adting,  turns  the  ! 
head  with  the  firft  vertebra  in  a rotatory  manner 
on  the  fecond,  vftiofe  proceffus  dentatus  is  the  axis 
of  this  motion. 

Interfpinales  colli  are  three  or  four  pair  of 
mufcles  between  the  bifid  procefTes  of  the  cervi- 
cal vertebr-m,  which  they  draw  nearer  each  other 
when  the  neck  is  bent  backward. 

Longus  colli  arifes  laterally  from  the  bodies 
of  the  four  fuperior  vertebrse  of  the  thorax,  and  i 
Rom  the  anterior  part  of  the  tranfverfe  procefTes  of  , 
the  five  inferior  vertebim  of  the  neck,  and  is  in- 
ferted 


Of  the  muscles. 


102 


ferted  into  the  fore-part  of  the  firfi;  and  fecond  ver- 
tebrse  of  the  neck,  which  it  bends  forward. 

Intertranfverfales  colli  are  portions  of  flefli 
between  the  tranfverfe  procelfes  of  the  verte- 
brse  of  the  neck,  like  the  interfpinales,  but  not  fo 
diftindl: ; they  draw  thefe  procelTes  together. 

Spinalis  colli  arifes  from  the  tranfverfe  procef- 
fes  of  the  five  fuperior  vertebrse  of  the  back,  and 
is  inferted  into  the  fpinal  proceiTes  of  the  fecond, 
third,  fourth,  and  fifth  vertebra  of  the  neck.  This 
pulls  the  neck  backward. 

Tranfverfalis  colli  arifes  from  the  oblique 
procefles  of  the  four  inferior  vertebrae  of  the 
neck,  and  is  inferted  into  the  fpinal  procefs  of  the 
fecond  vertebra  of  the  neck.  This  mufcle  is  but 
a continuation  of  the  tranfverfalis  or  femifpinalis 
dorfi. 

The  mufcles  of  the  head  and  neck  are  mofl  of 
them  obliquely  direfled,  which  makes  them  per- 
form the  oblique  motions,  as  well  as  extenfion  and 
flexion ; which  is  highly  convenient  in  this  cafe, 
becaufe  the  joints  moved  by  thefe  mufcles,  being 
under  the  weight  moved,  it  is  neceffary  that  the 
head  fhould  be  kept  fteady  by  the  extenfors,  and 
flexors  too,  when  any  great  weight  is  upon  the 
head  ; and  thefe  mufcles,  from  the  obliquity  of 
their  direftions,  not  only  perform  thefe  two  aUions 
at  once,  but  adling  by  pairs  they  move  the  head 
and  neck  fteadily,  in  a diagonal  direftion,  which 
flrait  mufcles  could  not  have  done  fo  well. 

Scalenus 


102 


Of  the  muscles. 


Scalenus  arifes  from  the  tranfverfe  proceffes 
of  the  fecond,  third,  fourth,  fifth  and  fixth  cervi- 
cal vertebrse.  It  is  inferted,  in  three  parts,  into 
the  two  uppermoft  ribs,  being  thus  divided  for  the 
tranfmiifion  of  the  fubclavian  veifels.  This  muf- 
cle  may  bend  the  nedc  ; but  its  chief  ufe  is  to  fup- 
port  the  upper  ribs,  which  is  necelfary  to  deter- 
mine the  contraction  of  the  intercoftal  mufcles 
that  way,  and  a ligament  could  not  have  done 
this,  becaufe  of  the  various  pofitions  that  the  neck 
and  back  are  liable  to. 

Serratus  fuperior  pofticus  arifes  with  a thin 
tendon,  infeparable  from  the  rhomboides,  from 
the  fpinal  procefs  of  the  inferior  cervical  vertebra, 
and  the  three  fuperior  of  the  thorax,  and  is  in- 
ferted into  the  fecond,  third,  and  fourth  ribs,  im- 
mediately beyond  their  bendings ; this,  ’Cvitli  the 
fcalenus,  fuftains  the  upper  ribs,  that  they  might 
not  be  pulled  downward  by  the  deprefibrs  of 
the  ribs  in  exfpiration,  as  the  lower  ribs  are  up- 
ward in  infpiration. 

Serratus  inferior  pofticus  arifes  with  a broad 
tendon,  infeparable  from  that  of  the  latiflimus 
dorfi,  from  the  fpinal  procelTes  of  the  three  fupe- 
rior vertebrtE  of  the  loins,  and  two  inferior  of 
the  thorax,  and  is  inferted  Into  the  tenth  rib,  but 
chiefly  the  ninth  and  eleventh  ; it  pulls  down  the 
ribs  in  exfpira,tion. 

Intercofiales  are  eleven  pair  on  each  fide, 
in  the  interfiices  of  the  ribs  j from  their  fituations 

diftineuifhed 


Of  the  muscles. 


103 

diftinguifhed  into  the  external  and  internal ; they  all 
arife  from  the  under  edge  of  each  rib,  and  are  in- 
ferted  into  the  upper  edge  of  the  rib  below.  The 
external  are  largeft  backward,  having  their  firit 
beginnings  from  the  tranfverfe  procelfes  of  the  ver- 
tebrse,  like  diftindt  mufcles,  which  fome  call  leva- 
tores  coftarum.  The  internal  run  all  from  above 
obliquely  backward  ; being  thickeft  forward,  and 
thinned;  toward  the  fpine.  Thefe  are  alfo  continu- 
ed betwixt  the  cartilages  of  the  fternum,  with  fi- 
bres perpendicular  to  the  cartilages  ; and  between 
the  cartilages  of  the  lowed  ribs,  they  are  infepa- 
rable  from  the  obliquus  afcendens  abdominis. 
Thefe  mufcles,  by  drawing  the  ribs  nearer  to  each 
other,  pull  them  all  upward,  and  dilate  the  tho- 
rax, they  being  fudained  at  the  top  by  the  fcale- 
nus  and  ferratus  fuperior  podicus.  To  thefe  Mr. 
CowPER  adds  fome  fiefhy  fibres,  which  run  from 
one  rib  over  a fecond  to  a third,  near  the  fpine, 
which  are  levatores  codarum. 

Triangularis  derni  arifes  internally  from  the 
cartilago  enfiformis,  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  os 
pectoris,  and  is  inferted  into  the  end  of  the  third, 
fourth,  dfth  and  fixth  ribs.  This  pulls  the  ribs 
to  the  bone  of  the  dernum,  and  thereby  bends  its 
cartilages  in  exfpiration. 

Diaphragma  arifes,  on  the  right  fide,  by  a pro- 
cefs  from  three  lumbal  vertebrsc,  and  one  of  the 
thorax  ; and  on  the  left,  from  the  one  fuperior  of 
the  loins,  and  inferior  of  the  thorax  ; this  lad  part 

^ being 


104  Of  the  muscles. 

being  lefs  to  giA^e  way  to  the  great  artery,  and  is  i 
inferted  into  the  lower  part  of  the  fternum  and  the  I 
five  inferior  ribs.  The  middle  of  this  mufcle  is  a 
hat  tendon,  from  whence  the  fieiliy  fibres  begin 
and  are  diflributed,  like  radii,  from  a centre  to  a 
circumference.  When  this  mufcle  afts  alone,  it 
conftridts  the  thorax,  and  pulls  the  ribs  downward, 
and  approaches  toward  a plane  ; which  adtion  is 
generally  performed  to  promote  the  ejedtion  of  the 
fseces.  In  large  infpirations,  when  the  intercoftals 
lift  up  the  ribs  to  widen  the  thorax,  this  mufcle 
adls  enough  to  bring  itfelf  toward  a plane,  without 
overcomdng  the  force  of  the  intercoftals,  by  which 
means  the  breaft  is  at  once  widened  and  lengthen- 
ed : when  it  adts  with  the  abdominal  mufcles,  it 
draws  the  ribs  nearer  together,  and  conftridls  the 
thorax,  and  the  fuperior  force  of  the  abdominal 
mufcles  thrufting  the  parts  of  the  lower  belly  againft  I 
it,  it  becomes  at  the  fame  time  convex  upward,  | 
and  fhortens  the  thorax,  which  occafions  the  largeft:  [ 

exfpirations  ; or  adting  alternately  with  the  abdo- 
minal mufcles  only,  a more  moderate  infpiration  | 
and  exfpiration  is  made  by  fhortening  and  lengthen- 
ing the  thorax  only,  which  is  what  we  chiefly  do  | 
when  lying  down  ; or  adting  alternately  with  the 
intercoftals  only,  a moderate  exfpiration  and  infpi-  ^ 
ration  is  caufed,  by  the  widening  and  narrowing  the 
breaft,  which  is  what  we  are  moft  prone  to  in  an 
eredt  pofition,  the  mufcles  of  the  abdomen  at  fuch 
times  being  employed  in  fupporting  the  parts  con-  I 

talned 


Of  the  muscles. 


105 

tained  in  the  abdomen.  And  though  thefe  mo- 
tions of  the  ribs  require  at  any  one  time  but  very 
little  force,  the  air  within  the  thorax  balancing  that 
without  ; yet  that  tjiefe  mufcles,  v/hofe  miotions  arc 
eifential  to  life,  may  be  never  weary,  the  infpirators 
in  moil;  men  have  force  fufHcient  to  raife  mercury 
in  a tube  four  or  five  and  twenty  inches  in  an 
ered:  pofture,  and  the  exfpirators  fix  or  feven  ; the 
firft  of  which  will  require  about  four  thoufand 
pound  force  in  moft  men,  and  the  other  propor- 
tional. But  I imagine,  that  lying  down,  thefe  pro- 
portions will  differ  by  the  weight  of  the  parts  con- 
tained in  the  abdomen.  In  all  the  bodies  I have 
diffedfed,  I have  found  the  diaphragm  convex  up- 
ward, which  gave  me  occafion  to  think,  that  all 
animals  died  in  exfpiration  ; till  the  forementioned 
experiment  difcovered,  that  the  mufcles  of  infpira- 
tion  were  ftronger  than  thofe  of  exfpiration  ; which 
led  me  to  make  the  following  experiment.  I cut 
the  wind-pipe  of  a dog,  and  having  a firing  ready 
fixed,  I put  a cork  into  it,  and  tied  it  fall  inflantly 
after  infpiration  ; upon  which  I obferved,  that  the 
diaphragm,  and  the  other  mufcles  of  infpiration  and 
exfpiration,  were  alternately  contradfed  and  diftendr- 
ed  for  fome  time ; but  vchen  he  was  dead,  the  ab- 
dominal mufcles  were  in  a ftate  of  contradlion,  the 
ribs  were  elevated  to  dilate  the  thorax,  and  the 
diaphragm  was  convex  upward.  This  experiment 
alfo  fhews,  that  the  diaphragm  is  not  a mufcle  of 
equal  force  either  to  the  deprefl’ors  or  elevators  of 

H the' 


Or  THE  MUSCLE  S. 


loO 

the  ribs,  it  neither  hindering  the  elevators  from 
raifmg  the  breaft  ; nor  the  cleprefibrs  from  thrufi;-* 
ing  it  upward,  by  compreffing  the  parts  contained 
in  the  abdomen,  though  the  bread  was  full  of 
air. 

Saccr  facrolumbalis,  longifiimus  dorfi,  and 
feinifpinalis,  are  all  that  portion  of  fldh  be- 
twixt the  os  I'acrum  and  the  neck,  which  feeing 
there  is  no  membrane  to  didinguifh  it  into  feveral 
mufcles,  and  that  it  is  all  employed  in  the  fame 
actions,  I fiiall  .give  it  the  name  of  extenfor  dorli 
et  lumborum,  and  deferibe  it  ail  as  one  miifcle. 

Extenfor  dorfi  et  lumborum  arifes  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  os  facrum,  the  fpine  of  the  os 
ilium,  the  back  parts  of  the  lowermoft  vertebrse 
of  the  loins,  and  remarkably  from  thofe  ftrong  ten- 
dons which  appear  on  their  outfides.  That  part  of 
this  mufcle,  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  facro- 
lumbalis,  is  inferted  into  all  the  ribs  near  their  ar- 
ticulations, Vvdth  the  tranfverfe  procelTes  of  the  ver- 
tebrae, and  into  the  tranfverfe  procefs  of  the  lad 
vertebra  of  the  neck ; befides,  as  this  pafies  over 
the  ribs,  it  receives  an  origin  from  every  rib,  in  a 
manner  that  cannot  well  be  deferibed.  The  por- 
tions of  this  mufcle,  which  arile  from  the  ribs,  and 
are  inferted  into  the  other  ribs  above,  wnll  neceffarily 
draw  the  back  part  of  the  ribs  nearer  together,  which 
mud  always  be  done  as  the  back  extends,  and  in- 
dependent of  other  adions  of  the  thorax.  The  next 
portion  of  this  mufcle,  called,  longiffimiis  dorli, 

is 


Of  the  muscles. 


is  infcrted  into  all  the  tranlVerfe  procefles  of  the 
Vertebrk  of  the  back,  and  partly  into  the  ribs,  and 
the  uppermoft  tranfverfe  procefles  of  the  vertebrae 
of  the  loins  ; and  the  upper  end  of  it  is  neither 
very  diftinfl:  from  the  complexus  of  the  head,  nor 
fpinalis  of  the  neck.  The  ref:  of  this  mufcle, 
known  by  the  names  of  femifpinalis,  facer,  &c. 
arifes  alfo  from  all  the  tranfverfe  and  oblique  pro- 
celTes  of  the  loins  and  back ; eveiy  portion,  except 
the  lowermoft,  paiTiiig  over  five  joints,  is  inferted 
into  the  fpinal  procefs  of  the  fixth  vertebra  above 
its  origin,  all  the  way  up  the  back,  and  at  the 
neck  commences  tranfverfalis  colli.  This  palling 
of  each  portion  of  a mufcle  over  a few  joints,  dif- 
tributes  their  force  equally  enough  among  all  thefe 
joints,  without  the  fibres  being  directed  more  ob- 
liquely than  thofe  of  penniform  mufclcs  ; but  the 
neck  and  loins  not  having  fuflicient  provifion  of 
this  fort,  there  are  fmall  mufcles  between  their  pro- 
celTes,  which,  though  they  are  of  little  importance 
for  the  motions  of  thofe  parts,  yet  are  fufficient  to 
diftribiite  the  force  of  larger  mufcles  equally 
among  thofe  joints  ; and,  befides  the  ufes  of  the 
extenfor  dorfi  et  lumborum,  v/hich  its  namm  im- 
plies, it  and  its  fellow  alternately  raife  the  hips  in 
walking,  which  any  one  may  feel  by  laying  his 
hand  upon  his  back. 

Quadratus  lumborum  arifes  from  the  upper 
part  of  the  fpine  of  the  ilium,  and  is  inferted  in- 
to all  the  tranfverfe  procelfes  of  the  four  upper- 
H 2 moft 


lo§ 


Of  the  muscle  S. 


moft  lumbal  vertebrse.  This,  and  its  fellow,  a(2:- 
ing  alternately,  affifi;  the  laft  mentioned  mufcle  in 
raifmg  the  ofla  innominata  in  progreffion  : or  each 
ading  fingly,  while  the  lov/er  limbs  are  not  moved, 
inclines  the  body  to  one  fide. 

Intertranfverfales  lumbomm  are  fmall  muf- 
cles  feated  between  all  the  tranfverfe  procelTes  of 
the  vertebrae  lumborum,  to  bring  them  nearer  to- 
gether. 

Pfoas  parvus  arifes  laterally  from  the  body  of 
the  firft  lumbal  vertebra,  and  the  loweft  of  the 
back,  and  foon  becoming  a fmall  tendon,  is  inferted 
into  the  cs  pubis,  near  the  ilium.  It  either  affifts 
ill  bending  the  loins  forward,  or  raifmg  the  os  in- 
nominatum  in  progreffive  motions.  This  mufcle 
is  often  v/anting. 

Pfoas  magnus  arifes  laterally  from  the  bodies 
and  tranfverfe  proceiTes  of  the  four  fuperior  ver- 
tebrae of  the  loins,  and  the  laft  of  the  back,  and  is 
inferted,  v/ith  the  following  mufcle,  into  the  lelfer 
trochanter.  This  bends  the  thigh,  and  when  the 
pfoas  parvus  is  wanting,  this  is  larger. 

Iliacus  internus  arifes  from  the  concave  part 
of  the  ilium,  and  from  its  lower  edge,  and  palling 
over  the  ilium,  near  the  os  pubis,  joins  the  former 
mufcle,  and  is  inferted  with  it,  to  be  employed  in 
the  fame  adion. 

Pedineus  arifes  from  the  os  pubis  or  pedinis, 
near  the  joining  of  that  bone  with  its  fellovr,  and 
is  inferted  into  the  linea  afpera  of  the  thigh  bone, 

four 


Of’  the  muscles. 


109 

tour  fingers  breadth  below  the  lefler  trochanter. 
This  bends  the  thigh,  and  turns  the  toes  outward. 

Triceps  femoris.  The  two  lefTer  heads  of 
this  mufcle  arife  under  the  peTineus,  and  the  third 
from  the  inferior  edges  and  back  part  of  the  os 
pubis  and  ifchium,  and  is  inferred  into  the  whole 
length  of  the  linea  afpera  and  the  inner  apophyfis 
of  the  os  femoris.  This  alfo  bends  the  thigh,  and 
turns  the  toes  outward.  When  the  thigh  bone  is 
moved  in  a plane,  vrhich  cuts  at  right  angles  a plane 
j that  paffes  through  the  axis  of  either  head  of  the 
I iaft  mufcle,  that  head  rifing  lower  than  the  centre 
1 of  motion  of  the  hip  joint,  it  will  either  alTift  the 
I flexors  or  extenfors,  and  that  moft  when  the 
bone  has  been  moved  moft  backward  or  forward ; 
and  as  either  of  thefe  heads  lie  more  or  lefs  out 
j of  the  faid  plane,  they  will  give  greater  afliftance 
1 to  that  motion  which  is  made  on  the  fide  of  the 
faid  plane,  contrary  to  their  fituation,  and  lefs  on 
j the  fame  fide.  This  mechaniim  is  frequently 
' made  ufe  of  to  make  one  mufcle  ferve  different 
afUons  ; but  I have  only  explained  it  in  this  in- 
ftance,  becaufe  it  is  the  moft  confiderable  one  that 
I know. 

I Gluteus  maximus  arifes  from  the  back  part 

I I of  the  fpine  of  the  ilium,  and  the  dorfum  ilii,  and 
iii  fide  of  the  os  coccygis  and  facrum,  and  a ligament 
|)  extended  between  thefe  bones,  and  from  a thin 
!i  fafeia,  fpread  over  that  part  of  the  following 
' { I mufcle  which  this  .does  not  cover,  and  is  inferted 

■ I 


1 lO 


Or  THE  MUSCLES. 


by  a ftrong  tendon  into  the  upper  part  of  the  linca 
afpera  of  the  thigh  bone,  and  alfo  into  the  flat  ten- 
don of  the  fafeialis  mufeie,  whieh  infertion  into,  or 
connexion  with,  that  tendon,  raifes  this  mufclc 
farther  from  the  eentre  of  motion,  and  increafes  its 
ftrength.  This  extends  the  thigh,  and  both  thefe 
together  being  eontradled,  oceafionally  aiTifl;  the 
levatores  ani  in  fupporting  the  anus.  The  breadth 
of  the  origin  and  infertion  of  this  mufeie  is  very 
obfervable  ; for  by  that  means,  though  it  is  the 
largeft  mufeie  in  the  body,  it  is  neverthelefs  right- 
lined,  without  one  flbra  eomprelTmg  another  any 
more  than  in  penniform  mufcles. 

Gluteus  medius  arifes  from  all  the  anterior 
part  of  the  fpina  and  dorfum  ilii,  and  under  part 
of  the  lafl:  mentioned  mufeie,  and  is  inferted  into 
the  upper  part  pf  the  great  troehanter  of  the  thigh 
bone.  This  extends  the  thigh  outvrard. 

Gluteus  minimus  arifes  entirely  under  the 
former,  from  the  dorfum  ilii,  and  is  inferted  into 
the  upper  and  anterior  part  of  the  great  trochanter 
and  neck  of  the  thigh  bone  to  extend  the  thigh. 

Pyriformis  arifes  internally  from  the  . inlidc 
of  the  os  facrum,  and  growing,  in  more  than  half 
its  progrefs,  into  a round  tendon,  is  inferted  into  the 
upper  part  of  the  fmus,  at  tile  root  of  the  great  tro- 
chanter. This  affifts  fomewhat  in  extending  the 
thigh,  but  more  in  turning  it  outward. 

Quadratus  femoris  arifes  from  the  obtufe  pro- 
cefs  of  the  ifehium,  and  is  inferted  into  the  up- 
per 


Of  the  muscle  S. 


1 I 3 

per  part  of  the  linea  afpera  of  the  thigh  bone,  be- 
tween the  two  trochanters.  This  dravv^s  the  thigh 
inward,  and  directs  the  toes  outward. 

Obturator  internus  or  marfupialis  arifes  gen- 
erally from  a ftrong  membrane,  or  ligament, 
which  fills  up  the  hole  of  the  os  innominatum, 
and  from  the  circumambient  bone  ; thence  pafi- 
ing  over  a channel  in  the  ifehium,  betwixt  its 
two  procefles,  it  receives  from  them  two  other 
portions,  which  are  a fort  of  marfupium,  and  is 
inferted  into  the  finus  of  the  great  trochanter. 
This  turns  the  thigh  outvrard.  ‘ 

Obturator  externus  arifes  oppofite  to  the  form- 
er, from  the  outfide  of  the  os  innominatum,  and 
is  inferted  into  the  finus  of  the  great  trochan- 
ter. This  alfo  turns  the  thigh  outward.  Thefe 
four  laft  mentioned  mufcles  adliiig  with  the  ex- 
tenfors,  prevent  their  turning  the  toes,  inward,  and 
in  ftepping  forwards  are  continually  acting  to  turn 
the  toes  outrvards  ; for  though  the  toes  are  placed 
perpendicular  to  the  front  of  the  body,  in  taking 
a long  ftep,  thefe  mufcles  bring  them  perpendic- 
ular to  the  fide  of  the  body  ; and  a.s  thefe  direct^ 
the  fame  extenfors  wdll  turn  the  thigh  either  out- 
ward or  backward,  with  their  full  force. 

Fafcialis,  or  membranofus,  arifes  from  the 
fore-part  of  the  fpine  of  the  ilium,  and  in  about 
five  inches  progrefs  becomes  a fiat  tendon,  or  faf- 
cia,  .which  is  joined  by  a confiderable  detach- 
rnent  from  the  tendon  of  the  gluteus  maximus, 


an  fi 


1 12 


Or  THE  MUSCLE  S. 


and  from  the  linea  afpera  of  the  thigh  bone,  and 
then  covering  in  an  efpeciai  manner  the  vaftus 
externus,  is  inferted  at  the  top  of  the  tibia  and 
hbula,  and  then  proceeds  to  join  the  fafcia,  which 
covers  the  upper  part  of  the  iniifcles  fituate  on  the 
outfide  of  the  tibia,  and  from  which  a great  part 
of  the  fibres  of  thofe  mufcles  arife.  About  the 
middle  of  the  leg  it  grows  loofe,  and  is  fo  contin-r 
ued  to  the  top  of  the  foot,  being  connedfed  there, 
and  at  the  lower  part  of  the  leg,  to  the  ligaments 
which  tie  down  the  tendons.  This  tendon,  where 
it  covers  the  vaftus  externus,  receives  additional 
tranfverfe  hbres,  which  run  through  the  thigh, 
but  are  moft  confpicuous  on  the  outfide.  This 
draws  the  thigh  outward,  and  palling  over  the 
knee  forwarder  than  its  axis  of  motion,  it  will 
help  to  extend  that  joint. 

Gracilis  arifes  froni  the  os  pubis,  clofe  to  the 
penis,  and  is  inferted  into  the  tibia,  four  or  live 
lingers  breadth  below  the  knee.  This  draws  the 
thigh  inward,  and  palling  over  the  knee,  behind 
its  axis  of  motion,  it  will  help  to  bend  it. 

Sartorius  arifes  from  the  fore-part  of  the  fpine 
of  the  ilium,  and  thence  defcending  obliquely 
to  the  infide  of  the  tibia,  is  there  inferted  four  or 
live  lingers  breadth  below  the  joint.  This  at  once 
helps  to  bend  both  the  thigh  and  leg,  particularly 
the  thigh,  at  very  long  levers ; it  direftly  helps  to 
lift  up  the  leg  in  walking  up  ftairs,  or  laying  the 
legs  acrofs,  like  taylors, 

Semitendlnofus 


Of  the  muscles. 


Semitendinofus  arifes  from  the  obtufe  procefs 
of  the  ifchium,  and  growing  a round  tendon  in 
fomewhat  more  than  half  its  progrefs,  is  inferted 
near  the  former  mufcles  into  the  tibia : it  helps  to 
extend  the  thigh  and  bend  the  tibia. 

SemimeiTibranofus  arifes  by  a flat  tendon  like 
a membrane  from  the  obtufe  procefs  of  the  if- 
•chium,  and  being  continued  tendinous  betv/ixt 
the  bellies  of  the  laft  mentioned  and  following 
-mufcles,  and  then  growing  flefhy,  becomes  again 
tendinous  above  the  joint,  and  is  inferted  nearer  the 
joint  than  the  former  mufcle  for  the  fame  ufe. 

Thefe  two  make  the  internal  hamftring,  and 
arifing  and  inferting  fo  near  together,  they  might 
have  been  one  mufcle,  but  their  fibres  would  have 
been  near  twice  as  long,  which  would  have  given 
a motion  near  twice  as  quick,  but  not  fo  ftrong, 
unlefs  it  had  been  inferted  at  a diftance  from  the 
joint  it  moves  proportionable  to  its  length,  which 
could  not  well  be  ; therefore  they  are  made  two 
mufcles  of  a number  of  fibres  nearly  equal  to  what 
one  could  have  been,  and  are  inferted  at  diftances 
from  the  axis  of  motion  of  the  knee,  ^proportional 
to  the  different  lengths  of  their  fibres  in  the  direc^ 
tions  of  their  axis. 

Biceps  tibise,  the  firfl:  head  arifes  in  common 
with  the  two  preceding  mufcles,  from  the  obtufe 
procefs  of  the  ifchium  ; the  fecond  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  linea  afpera  of  the  thigh  bone.  This 
iQon  joins  the  former,  and  is  inferted  with  it  into 

the 


Of  the  muscles. 


1 14 

the  upper  part  of  the  fibula  to  bend  the  leg,  and 
the  firft  head  alfo  extends  the  thigh.  The  tendon 
of  this  mufcle  makes  the  external  hamftring,  when 
the  knee  is  bent ; and  when  we  fit  down,  the  bi- 
ceps will  turn  the  leg  and  toes  outward,  and  the 
femitendinofus  and  femimembranofus  will  turn 
them  inward. 

Popliteus  arifes  from  the  outer  apophyfis  of 
the  os  femoris,  and  thence  running  obliquely  in- 
ward, is  inferted  into  the  tibia  immediately  below 
its  head.  This  affifts  the  flexors,  and  draws  the  ti- 
bia toward  the  outer  apophyfis  of  the  thigh  bone. 

Refills  tibise  arifes  with  a tendon  from  the 
upper  part  of  the  acetabulum  of  the  os  innomina- 
tum,  and  by  another  tendon,  which  is  a fort  of 
ligament  to  this,  from  a procelTus  innominatus  of 
the  ilium  below  its  fpine  forward,  and  is  inferted, 
together  with  the  three  following  mufcles,  into  the 
patella.  It  bends  the  thigh,  and  extends  the  tibia. 

Vaftus  externus  arifes  from  the  anterior  part 
of  the  great  trochanter  and  upper  part  of  the  li- 
nea  afpera  of  the  thigh  bone,  and  is  inferted  into 
the  upper  and  external  part  of  the  patella.  It  ex- 
tends the  tibia, 

Vaftus  internus  arifes  from  the  inner  and 
lower  part  of  the  linea  afpera,  and  is  inferted  into 
the  upper  and  inner  part  of  the  patella,  to  extend 
the  tibia  ; and  the  fibres  of  this  mufcle  being  ob- 
lique, it  keeps  the  patella  in  its  place,  the  other 
mufcles  lying  in  the  direction  of  the  os  femoris, 

which 


Of  the  muscles. 


wliich  makes  an  obtufe  angle  with  the  tibia,  they 
would  alone  be  liable  to  draw  the  patella  outward. 
This  contrivance  is  moft  obvious  in  thofe  whofe 
knees  bend  mod  inward. 

Crureus  arifes  between  the  two  lad,  below  the 
re£tus,  from  all  the  convex  part  of  the  os  femoris, 
and  is  inferted  in  like  manner  into  the  patella ; the 
patella  being  tied  down  by  a drong  ligament  to  the 
tibia.  Thefe  three  lad  mufcles  extend  the  tibia 
only,  and  might  very  properly  be  called  extenfor 
tibise  triceps. 

Gaderocnemius  arifes  by  two  fmall  beginnings 
above  the  back  part  of  the  apophyfis  of  the  os 
femoris,  which  foon  becoming  large  bellies  unite, 
and  then  become  a flat  tendon  which  joins  the 
following  mufcles  to  be  inferted  into  the  os  cal- 
cis.  The  two  parts  of  this  mufcle  are  by  feme 
writers  didinguilhed  into  two  mufcles.  Its  ufe  is 
to  extend  the  tarfus  and  bend  the  knee. 

Plantaris  arifes  under  the  outer  beginning  of 
the  lad  named  mufcle,  from  the  external  apophyfis 
of  the  os  femoris,  and  foon  becoming  a fmall  ten- 
don, is  fo  continued  betwixt  the  foregoing  and  fub- 
fequent  mufcles,  and  is  inferted  with  them.  It 
bends  the  knee,  and  extends  the  tarfus.  Authors 
derive  the  tendinous  expandon  on  the  bottom  of  the 
foot  from  the  tendon  of  this  mufcle  ; but  feeing 
the  expanfion  is  much  more  than  this  tendon  could 
make,  and  that  this  tendon  can  be  traced  no  far- 
ther than  the  os  calcis,  and  that  the  expanfion  is 


as 


Of  the  muscle  S. 


s i5 

as  large  when  the  miifde  is  wanting,  which  is  not 
fcldom,  I cannot  be  of  that  opinion. 

Gafterocnemius  internus  arifes  from  the  up- 
per part  of  the  tibia,  and  one  third  of  the  fibu- 
la, below  the  popliteus,  and  is  inferted  with  the 
two  foregoing  mufcles  by  a flrong  tendon  into  the 
upper  and  back  part  of  the  os  calcis.  This  mufcle 
only  .extends  the  tarfus. 

Tibialis  anticus  arifes  from  the  upper  and  ex- 
terior part  of  the  tibia,  and  is  inferted  laterally 
into  the  os  cuneiforme  maj  us  of  the  tarfus,  and  by 
a imall  portion  of  its  tendon  into  the  metacarpal 
bone  of  the  great  toe.  This  bends  and  turns  the 
tarfus  inward. 

Tibialis  pofticus  arifes  firft  by  a fmall  begin- 
ning from  the  upper  part  of  the  tibia  betvvreen 
that  bone  and  the  fibula,  then  paffing  between 
the  bones  through  a perforation  in  the  tranfverfe 
ligament  which  conneds  thole  bones,  it  takes  other 
beginnings  from  the  upper  and  middle  part  of  the 
tibia,  and  from  the  middle  of  the  fibula,  and  the 
Uganient  betwixt  the  tibia  and  fibula  ; then  grow- 
ing a round  tendon,  pafies  under  the  inner  ancle, 
and  is  inferted  into  the  lower  part  of  the  os  navi- 
euiare,  and  into  the,  os  cuneiforme  maj  us.  This 
extends  and  turns  inward  the  tarfus. 

Peroneus  iongus  arifes  from  the  upper  and 
outer  part  of  the  fibula,  and  growing  a tendon  to- 
ward the  lower  part  of  this  bone,  palTes  under  the 
outer  ancle,  and  the  miiicles*  fituated  on  the  bot- 
tom 


Of  the  muscles.  zij 

tom  of  the  foot,  and  is  inferted  into  the  beginning 
of  the  metatarfal  bone  of  the  great  toe,  and  the 
os  cuneiforme  next  that  bone.  This  turns  the 
tarfus  outward,  and  direds  the  force  of  the  other 
extenfors  of  the  tarfus  toward  the  ball  of  the  great 
toe. 

Peroneus  brevis  arifes  from  the  middle  of  the 
fibula,  under  a part  of  the  former,  and  growing 
tendinous,  palTes  under  the  outward  ancle,  and  is 
inferted  into  the  beginning  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  os  metatarfi  of  the  little  toe,  and  fometimes 
bellows  a fmall  tendon  on  the  little  toe.  Its  ufs 
is  to  extend  the  tarfus,  and  turn  it  outward. 

Thefe  two  laft  mufcles  riding  over  the  lower 
end  of  the  fibula,  are  often  the  caufe  of  a fprain 
in  the  outer  ancle,  when  they  are  vehemently  ex- 
erted to  fav.e  a fall. 

Extenfor  pollicis  longus  arifes  from  the  upper 
and  middle  part  of  the  fibula  and  the  ligamentum 
tranfverfale,  and  foon  becoming  a llrong  tendon, 
is  inferted  into  the  laft  bone  of  the  great  toe. 
This  alfo  bends  the  tarfus  with  a much  longer 
lever  than  it  extends  the  toe. 

Extenfor  pollicis  brevis  arifes  from  the  fore-part 
of  the  os  calcis,  and  is  inferted  into  the  fame  place 
with  the  former. 

Flexor  pollicis  longus  arifes  from  the  fib- 
ula, oppofite  to  the  extenfor  longus,  and  then 
palTing  under  the  inner  ancle,  is  inferted  into  the 
Hnder  fide  of  the  laft  bone  of  the  great  toe.  This 

extends 


ilS  Of  the  MUSCLES. 

extends  the  tarlus  at  a longer  lever  than  it  bends 
the  toe. 

Flexor  brevis  and  addudtor  pollick  arc  the  fame 

X 

mufcle,  arifmg  from  the  two  lefier  olfa  enneiformia 
and  os  cuboides  and  calcis.  They  are  inferted 
into  the  ofla  fefamoidea,  which  are  tied  by  a 
ligament  to  the  iirft  bone  of  the  great  toe,  reckon- 
ing only  two  bones  to  the  great  toe.  Thefe  raul- 
cles  bend  the  great  toe; 

Abdudtor  pollicis  arlfes  pretty  largely  from 
the  inner  and  back  part  of  the  os  calcis,  and  by 
a fmalier  beginning  from  the  os  naviculare  ; 
thence  palling  forward  contiguous  to  the  os  cu- 
neiforme  majus,  pafies  by  the  external  feia?noid 
bone  of  the  great  toe  to  its  infertion  into  the  lirll 
bone  of  the  great  toe.  This  mufcle  is  lefs  an  ab- 
dudtor  than  a fiexor  pollicis  pedis  j it  alfo  very 
much  helps  to  conllricl  the  foot  lengthways. 

Tranfverfalis  pedis  arifes  from  the  lower  end  of 
the  metatarfal  bone  of  the  toe  next  the  leaf!;,  and 
is  inferted  into  the  internal  fefamoid  bone.  This 
truly  is  an  addudlor  of  the  great  toe,  a.nd  helps  to 
keep  the  conUridture  of  the  bottom  of  the  foot. 

Extenfor  digitorum  pedis  longus  arifes  acute 
from  the  upper  part  of  the  tibia,  and  from  the 
upper  and  middle  part  of  the  fibula  and  ligament 
between  thefe  bones  ; then  dividing  into  five 
tendons,  four  of  them  are  inferted  into  the  fecond 
bone  of  each  lelTer  toe,  and  the  fifth  into  the  be- 
ginning of  the  metatarfal  bone  of  the  leaft  toe,  and 

fometimes 


4 


Of  the  muscles. 


1 19 

fbmetimes  by  a fixiall  tendon  alfo  into  the  little  toe. 
This  laft  portion  for  the  rnoft  part  is  feparate  from 
its  beginning,  and  may  be  accounted  a diftindt  muf- 
cle.  The  four  hrft  tendons  only  of  this  mufcle  ex- 
tend the  toes,  but  all  hve  bend  the  tarfus,  and  that 
with  a longer  lever  than  any  of  them  bend  a toe. 

Extenfor  digitorum  brevis,  arifes  together 
with  the  extenfor  pollicis  brevis,  from  the  os  cal- 
cis,  and  dividing  into  three  fraail  tendons  is  infert- 
ed  into  the  fecond  joint  of  the  three  toes  next 
the  great  one.  The  long  extenfors  of  the  toes  ferve 
not  only  to  extend  them,  but  alfo  contribute  to 
the  bending  of  the  ancle,  which  motions  are  ufu- 
ally  performed  together  in  progreffion ; but  the 
fhort  extenfors  arifing  below  the  ancle,  extend  the 
toes  only ; and  when  the  long  extenfors  are  em- 
ployed for  that  adtion  only,  the  extenfors  of  the 
tarfus  mufi;  adl  at  the  fame  time,  to  prevent  the 
bending  of  the  ancle.  This  is  the  reafon  why  the 
toes  have  need,  though  their  motions  are  lefs,  of 
more  extenfors  than  the  lingers. 

Flexor  brevis  or  perforatus  arifes  fi^m  the 
under  and  back'  part  of  the  os  calcis,  thence  pair- 
ing toward  the  four  lelTer  toes,  divides  into  four 
tendons,  which  are  inferted  into  the  beginning  of 
the  fecond  bone  of  each  of  the  lelTer  toes.  Thefe 
tendons  are  divided  to  let  through  the  tendons  of 
the  following  mufcles. 

Flexor  longus  or  perforans  arifes  from  the 
back  part  of  the  tibi'a,  above  the  infertion  of 

the 


t20 


Of  the  muscle  S. 


the  popliteus,  and  part  of  the  fibula  ; thence  de- 
fcending  under  the  os  calcis  to  the  bottom  of  the 
foot,  there  becomes  tendinous,  often  croffes,  and, 
in  moft  bodies,  communicates  with  the  flexor  lon- 
gus  pollicis  pedis  ; then  it  divides  into  four  tendons 
which  pafs  through  thofe  of  the  flexor  brevis,  and 
are  inferted  into  the  third  bone  of  the  four  leffer 
toes.  This  mufcle  alfo  extends  the  tarfus.  The 
fecond  beginning  of  this  mufcle  arifes  from  the  os 
calcis,  and  joins  the  tendons  where  they  divide. 
This  portion  only  bends  the  toes  ; and  feeing  the 
flexor  longus  of  the  toes  will,  when  it  adts  alone, 
extend  the  tarfus  as  well  as  bend  the  toes,  this 
portion,  like  the  fhort  extenfors  of  the  toes,  feems 
purpofely  contrived  to  bend  the  toes  alone. 

Luriibricales  arife  from  the  tendons  of  the 
perforans,  and  are  inferted  into  the  firfl:  bone  of 
each  of  the  leiTer  toes  which  they  bend. 

Abdudtor  minimi  digiti  pedis  arifes  by  the 
perforatus  from  the  os  calcis,  and  being  part  of 
it  inferted  into  the  metacarpal  bone  of  the  leaf; 
toe,  it  receives  another  beginning  from  the  os  cu- 
boides,  and  is  inferted  into  the  full  bone  of  the  leaf:' 
toe,  which  it  bends  and  pulls  outward,  and  very 
much  helps  to  confliridt  the  bottom  of  the  foot. 

Abdudtor  fecundus  minimi  digiti  arifes  under 
the  former  mufcle  from  the  metatarfal  bone,  and  is 
inferted  into  the  little  toe. 

Interoffei  are  feven  mufcles  which  lie  like 
thofe  of  the  hands,  and  arife  like  them  from  the 

metatarfal 


Of  the  muscles. 


121 


metatarfal  bones,  and  are  inferred  like  them  into 
the  laft  joints  of  the  four  leffer  toes  ; and  being  in 
their  progrefs  attached  to  the  tendons,  which  ex- 
tend the  fecond  joints  of  the  toes,  they  will  extend 
both  thefe  joints.  Thefe  mufcles  may  be  fitly  di- 
vided into  external  and  internal  ; the  internal  alfo 
bend  the  firft  joints,  as  do  all  the  interoffei  in  the 
hand,,  but  here  the  outer  ones  extend  the  firft  joints  ; 
and  if  we  confider  that  the  firft  of  thefe  mufcles  is 
analogous  to  the  abducftor  indicis  of  the  hand,  and 
that  the  abduftor  minimi  is  alike  in  both,  we  find 
that  the  mufcles  to  move  the  fingers  and  lelfer 
toes  fideways  are  alike  in  number,  though  this  mo- 
tion of  the  toes  is  in  a manner  loft  from  the  ufe  of 
fhoes.  The  mufcles  that  bend  or  extend  the  laft 
joints  of  the  toes  will  alfo  move  the  fecond  and 
firft,  and  thofe  that  move  the  fecond  will  alfo 
move  the  firft,  as  they  do  in  the  fingers. 


I 


TAB, 


( 122  ) 


TAB.  XI. 

! Mufculus  frontalis. 

2 Temporalis. 

3 Orbicularis. 

4 The  parotid  gland,  with  its  dud:,  which  pafl^ 

through  the  buccinator. 

5 Maftoideus. 

6 Zygomaticus. 

7 Elevator  labii  fuperioris  proprius. 

8 Elevator  labiorum  communis. 

9 Depreflbr  labiorum  communis. 

10  Sphinder  oris. 

1 1 Depreflbr  labii  inferioris  proprius. 

12  Buccinator. 

13  Sterno-hyoidei. 

14  Coraco-hyoideus. 

15  Maftoideus. 

16  Trapezius. 

17  Ped:oralis. 

18  Deltoides» 


TAB. 


! 


TAB  .XT. 


^■12,%. 


. f 


1 


• IC;''''  i/’f/X'*,"' 'J,/-  ‘ !''^;fe'' 


I 


■,,.!%^  V 


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■ -s.  ■•■■. 


% 

■V  *,.  *:•■ 


^ ‘.‘'.A/:-  .i 


- ■ - . ,y>. 


- .^  ; 


IS  . e’l 

.■.Slit’ 


sN;-  ^•  < 


*.  ■'. 


%, 


X\-'"  -v^A'.' 


w®i' 


i-% 


■ 4*.. 


• ^:'- 


't 

■frf' 


■ t ‘>f.-j  rfv  ■.’ 

^ ;•»'  ity^'  ,.■ 

%■  vi,,-yA  *!  fct'ti'rf 


ti  ■ at- 


( ‘23  ) 

TAB.  XII. 

1 Mufculus  maftoideus. 

2 Pe£toraIis. 

3 Biceps  flexor  cubiti. 

4 Coraco-brachialis. 

5 Triceps  extenfor  cubiti, 

6 Latiflimus  dorfi. 

7 Serator  major  anticus. 

8 Obliquus  defcendens  abdominis^ 

9 Redus  abdominis. 

10  Pyramidalis. 

1 1 Sartorius. 

12  Fafcialis. 

1 3 Redus  femoris. 


I 2 


TAB, 


( ^24  ) 


TAB.  XIB. 

1 Trapezius. 

2 Deltoides. 

3 Iiifrafpinatus  fcapulse. 

4 Teres  major. 

5 Rhomboides. 

6 Ladflimus  dorfi. 
y Glutsei. 

8 Obliquus  defcendens  abdominis. 


TAB  JOE. 


-P  ^^4 


-J 


i. 


TAB.XIV. 


Ai 


( 125  ) 


TAB.  XIV. 

2  Mufculus  deltoides. 

2 .Triceps  extenfor  cubiti. 

3 Anconaeus. 

4 Extenfor  carpi  radialis  primus. 

5 Extenfor  carpi  radialis  fecundus. 

6 Extenfor  carpi  ulnaris. 

7 Flexor  carpi  ulnaris. 

8 Deltoides. 

9 Biceps  flexor  cubiti. 

20  Brachiseus  internus. 

1 1 Triceps  extenfor  cubiti. 

12  Supinator  radii  longus. 

13  Extenfores  carpi  radiales. 

14  Extenfor  communis  digit orum, 

15  Extenfor  carpi  ulnaris. 
j6  Flexor  carpi  ulnaris, 

27  Anconseus. 

18  Extenfor  pollicis  primus. 

29  Extenfor  pollicis  fecundus, 


TAB. 


( 126  ) 

TAB.  XV. 

1 Milfculus  deltoides. 

2 Pedoralis. 

3 Biceps  flexor  cubiti. 

4 Triceps  extenfor  cubiti. 

5 The  fafcia  tendinofa  of  the  biceps  mufcle. 

6 Supinator  radii  longus. 

7 Flexor  carpi  radialis. 

8 Glutaeus. 

9 Vaftus  externus. 

10  Biceps  femoris. 

1 1 Semitendinofus. 

12  Semimembranofus, 

13  Gaftrocnemius. 

14  Solaeus. 


T A 


TAB.XVT 


TAB-M. 


( ) 


TAB.  XVL 

1 Mufculus  re£tus  femorls. 

2 Vaitus  externus. 

3 Vaftus  internus. 

4 Sartorlus. 

5 Pedinseus. 

6 The  large  head  of  the  triceps. 

7 Gaftrocnemius. 

8 Solseus. 

9 Membranofus. 

10  Redfus  femoris. 

11  Vaftus  internus. 

12  Vaftus  externus. 

13  Sartorius. 

14  Pediinseus. 

15  Gaftrocnemius. 

16  Solsus. 

17  Tibialis  anticus. 

18  Extenfores  digitorum. 


T A B. 


( 128  ) 


TAB.  XVIL 

r Mufculus  abductor  pollicis. 

2 Addudtor  pollicis. 

3 Flexor  brevis. 

4 Quadratus  feu  palmaris  brevis, 

5 The  ftrong  ligament  of  the  carpus  that  binds 
down  the  tendons  of  the  flexors  of  the  fingers. 

6 Abduftor  minimi  digiti. 

7 A probe  under  the  tendons  of  the  perforatus. 

8 A probe  under  the  tendons  of  the  perforans, 

9 Lumbricales. 

JO  Perforatus. 

1 1 Flexor  carpi  radialis. 

12  Flexor  carpi  ulnaris. 


TAB. 


TABJCVE. 


T.  I2,6‘. 


TAH3CVHI. 


( «29  ) 


TAB.  XVIII. 

X Tendo  achitles. 

2 That  part  of  the  aftragalus  which  articulates 

with  the  tibia. 

3 The  tendon  of  the  tibialis  anticus. 

4 The  tendon  of  the  extenfor  ppliicis  pedis  longus., 

5 The  tendons  of  the  extenfor  digitorum  com- 

munis. 

6 Extenfor  pollicis  pedis  brevis, 
y E^xtenfor  digitorum  brevis. 

^ The  union  of  the  tendons  of  the  extenfor  longus 
gind  the  extenfor  brevis. 


I 


T A E, 


OO 


( 13°  ) 


TAB.  XIX. 

1 Mufculus  triceps  cxtenfor  cubiti. 

2 Deltoicles. 

3 Teres  major. 

4 Latiffimus  dorfi, 

5 Pe£toralis. 

6 Obliquus  defcendens  abdominis. 
Redtus  abdominis. 

Sartorius. 

‘9  Redlus  femoris, 

I o Vaftus  externus. 

I I Vaftus  intemus, 

12  Gaftrocnemius. 

13  Solasus. 

14  Tibialis  anticus. 


TAB. 


1 


( 13*  ) 

TAB.  XX. 

This  table  is  done  after  the  famous  ftatue  of 
Hercules  and  Antseus.  The  mufcles  here  exhib- 
ited being  all  explained  In  the  other  plates,  the 
figures  are  omitted  to  preferve  the  beauty  of  the 
plate. 


THE 


ITilsC 


THE 


A N A TO  M Y 

OF  THE 

HUMAN  BODY, 


BOOK  III. 


CHAR  I. 

Of  the  External  Parts,  and  Common 
Integuments. 

T HE  vulgar  names  of  the  external  parts 
of  the  human  body  being  fufficiently  known 
for  the  defcriptio'n  of  any  difeafe  or  operation  ; I 
lhall  only  defcribe  thofe  which  anatomifts  have 
given  for  the  better  underftanding  of  the  fub-con- 
tained  parts. 

if  The  hollow  on  the  middle  of  the  thorax,  under 
the  breafts,  is  called  fcrobiculus  cordis  ; the  middle 
of  the  abdomen  for  about  three  lingers  breadth 

above 


134  EXTERNAL  PARTS,  &c. 

above  and  below  the  navel,  is  called  regio  rnn- 
billcalis ; the  middle  part  above  this,  epigas- 
trium ; on  each  fide  of  the  epigaftrium,  under  the 
cartilages  of  the  lower  ribs,  hypochondrium  ; and 
from  below  the  regio  umbilicalis,  down  to  the  oifa 
ilia  and  offa  pubis,  hypogaftrium. 

( Cuticula,  or  fcarf-fkin,  is  that  thin  infenfible 
membrane  which  is  raifed  bj  blifters  in  living 
bpdies.  It  is  extended  over  every  part  of  the  true 
lEin,  unlefs  where  the  nails  are.  It  appears  to  me 
in  a microfeope  a very  fine  fmooth  membrane,  only 
unequal  where  the  reticulum  mucofiim  adheres 
to  it.  ■ Lewenhoeck,  and  others,  fay  it  appears 
fcaly,  and  compute  that  a grain  of  fand  of  the 
hundredth  part  of  an  inch  diameter,  will  cover 
two  hundred  and  fifty  of  thefe  Scales,  and  that  each 
Scale  has  about  five  hundred  pores ; So  that  a grain 
of  fand  will  cover  125,000  pores  through  which 
w^e  perfpire.  Its  ufe  is  to  defend  the  true  Ikin  that 
it  may  not  be  expofed  to  pain  from  whatever  it 
touches  ; and  alfo  to  preferve  it  from  wearing : 
it  is  thickeft  on  thofe  parts  of  the  bottom  of  the 
foot  which  fuftain  the  body,  and  in  hands  much 
iifed  to  labour,  being  So  contrived  as  to  grow  the 
thicker  the  more  thofe  parts  are  ufed.  In  Scorbu- 
tic disorders  the  cuticula  will  fometimes  become 
Scurfy  and  full  of  little  ulcers,  which  are  apt  to 
remain  even  vrhen  the  caufe  is  taken  away,  but  the 
cuticle  being  taken  off  by  a blifier,  the  new  cuti- 
cle vrill  be  found  5 and  though  the  cutis  is  aftefted 

and 


EXTERNAL  PARTS,  &c.  135 

and  full  of  little  tumors,  the  difcharge  of  the  blif- 
ter  will  often  cure  them  alfo. 

:7  Between  this  and  the  true  fkin  is  a fmall 
quantity  of  fiimy  matter,  which  was  fuppofed  by 
Malpighi  and  others,  to  be  contained  in  proper 
veffels,  interwoven  with  one  another,  and  there- 
fore by  them  named  reticulum  mucofum.  It  is 
moll  confiderable  \vhere  the  cuticula  is  thickeft, 
and  is  black,  white,  or  dufky,  fuch  as  is  the  com- 
plexion ; the  colour  of  this  and  the  cuticula  being 
the  only  dliference  between  Europeans  and  Afri- 
cans or  Indians,  the  fibres  of  the  true  flcin  being 
white  in  all  men ; but  the  florid  colour  of  the 
cheeks  is  owing  to  the  blood  in  the  minute  vefiels 
of  the  fkin,  as  that  in  the  lips  to  the  veffels  in  the 
mufcular  flefh ; for  the  cuticula  being  made  of 
excrementitious  matter,  has  no  blood  veffels. 

Cutis,  or  true  fkin,  is  a very  compadt,  ftrong, 
and  fenfible  membrane,  extended  over  all  the 
other  parts  of  the  body,  having  nerves  terminat- 
ing fo  plentifully  in  all  its  fuperficies,  for  the 
fenfe  of  touching,  that  the  finefl;  pointed  inflru- 
ment  can  prick  no  where  without  touching  ibme 
of  them. ) Thefe  nerves  are  faid  by  Malpighi 
and  others,  who  have  examined  them  carefully,  to 
terminate  in  fmall  pyramidal  papilla  ; neverthelefs, 
it  feems  that  a plain  fuperficies  of  the  fkin  is  much 
fitter  and  more  agreeable  to  what  we  experience  of 
this  fenfation  ; for  a plain  fuperficies  expofing  all 
the  nerves  alike,  I think,  would  give  a more  equal 

fenfation, 


1^6  EXTERNAL  PARTS,  &6. 

fenfation,  while  nerves  ending  in  a pyramidal  pa^ 
pilla  would  be  exceeding  fenfible  at  the  vertex  of 
that  papilla ; and  thofe  at  the  fides  and  round  the 
bafe,  which  would  be  far  the  greateft  part,-  v/ould 
be  the  leaft  ufeful.  Immediately  under  the  Ikin 
upon  the  fliin  bone,  I have  twice  feen  little  tumors 
lefs  than  a pea,  round  and  exceeding  hard,  and  fo 
painful  that  both  cafes  were  judged  to  be  cancerous; 
they  were  cured  by  extirpating  the  tumor : but 
v;hat  was  more  extraordinary,  was  a tumor  ©f  this 
kind,  under  the  Ikin  of  the  buttock,  fmail  as  a 
pin’s  head,  yet  fo  painful  that  the  leaft  touch 
was  infupportable,  and  the  fjiin  for  half  an  inch 
round  was  emaciated ; this  too  I extirpated,  with 
lo  much  of  the  fldn  as  was  emaciated,  and  fome 
fat.  The  patient,  who  before  tlif  operation  could 
not  endure  to  fet  his.leg.^o  thedgrojund,  nor  turn 
in  liis  bed  without  exquH'ite  paini,  grew  immedi- 
ately eafy,  walked  to  his  bed  without  any  com- 
plaint, and  was  foon  cured. 

Glandulae  miliares  are  fmail  bodies  like  mil- 
let feeds,  feated  immediately  under  the  fkin  in  the 
axiiias  ; and  are  faid  to  have  been  found  under  all 
other  parts  of  the  fkin,  wdiere  they  have  been 
looked  for  vs^ith  microfcopes.  ^ Thefe  glands  are 
fuppofed  to  feparate  fweat ; which  fluid  was  thought 
to  be  only  the  materia  perfpirabilis  flowing  in  a 
greater  quantity,  and  condenfed,  till  Sanctorius 
affureu  us  that  it  is  not  fo,  and  that  more  of  the 
materia  peripirabilis  is  icparated  in  equal  times  than 

of 


EXTERNAL  PARTS,  &c.  137 

of  fweat ; of  the  former,  he  fays,  iifually  fifty-two 
ounces  a day  in  Italy,  where  his  experiments  were 
made,  and  of  the  latter  not  near  fo  much  in  the 
moil  profufe  fweats ; which  feems  to  favour  the 
opinion  of  the  exiftence  of  thefe  glands  : but  who- 
ever reads  Mr.  Hales’s  experiments  will  find, 
that  what  Sanctorius  accounted  for  by  an 
imaginary  infenfible  perfpiration,  difierent  from 
that  which  in  the  greateft  degree  produces  fweat, 
is  really  made  by  the  lungs  in  refpiration,  and  is 
ten  times  more  than  all  the  ordinary  perfpiration. 
through  the  cutis,  and  feems  to  be  but  the  fame 
kind  of  fluid  difcharged  both  ways  ; for  whenever 
it  is  interrupted  through  the  fkin  in  cold  weather, 
then  the  lungs  are  overcharged,  which  occafions 
coughing  to  get  rid  of  it,  which  in  a greater 
degree  is  an  afthma.  Hence  too  it  is,  that  thofe 
who  perfpire  moft  in  the  fummer  are  moft  fub- 
jedt  to  afthmatic  diforders  in  the  winter  ; and  moft 
of  all  fo,  when  the  air  they  breathe  is  fulleft  of 
vapour,  and  therefore  leaft  capable  of  conveying 
this  matter  from  the  lungs.  That  this  kind  of 
perfpiration  is  very  great,  is  fufficiently  fhewn  by 
breathing  upon  glafs,  or  any  thing  that  is  fmooth 
and  cold. 

^Membrana  adipofa  is  all  that  membrane  imm^e- 
diately  under  the  (kin,  which  contains  the  fat 
in  cells ; it  is  thickeft  on  the  abdomen  and  but- 
tocks, and  thinneft  neareft  the  extremities  ; and 
where  the  mufcles  adhere  to  the  ficin,  and  on  the 
K penis. 


13S  EXTERNAL  PARTS,  &c. 

penis,  little  or  none.  It  contributes  to  keep  the  in- 
ner parts  warm,  and  by  filling  the  interftices  of 
the  mufcles,  renders  the  furface  of  the  body  fmooth 
and  beautiful,  and  may  ferve  to  lubricate  their  fur- 
faces.  Whether  the  decreafe  of  fat,  which  often 
follows  labour  or  ficknefs,  proceeds  from  its  being 
re-affumed  into  the  blood  veffels,  or  whether  it  is 
conflantly  perfpiring  through  the  flcin,  and  the 
leffening  of  its  quantity  is  from  the  want  of  a fup- 
ply  equal  to  its  confumption,  is  with  me  a matter 
of  doubt,  though  the  former  opinion,  I know,  gen- 
erally prevails.  The  cells  of  this  membrane  com- 
municate throughout  the  whole  body  fo  much, 
that  from  any  one  part  the  whole  may  be  filled 
with  air.  I have  feen  two  cafes  where  the  wind- 
pipe being  cut,  and  the  external  wounds  being 
clofely  ftitched  by  injudicious  furgeons,  the  air 
that  efcaped  at  the  wound  of  the  wind-pipe  getr 
ting  into  the  cells  of  the  membrana  adipofa,  blew 
up  the  upper  part  of  the  body  like  a bladder. 
The  like  accident  I have  feen  from  a broken  rib, 
where,  I fuppofe,  the  end  of  the  rib  had  pricked 
the  lungs ; all  thefe  perfons  died.  In  thefe  cells 
the  water  is  contained  in  an  anafarca,  which  from 
its  weight,  firft  fills  the  depending  parts,  as  the 
air  in  the  former  cafes  did  the  upper  parts ; and 
when  thefe  cells  are  very  full,  the  water  frequently 
paifes  from  them  into  the  abdomen,  and  after 
tapping,  though  the  limbs  were  ever  - fo  full, 
they  will  almoft  empty  themfelves  in  one  night’s 

time. 


EXTERNAL  PARTS,  &c.  139 

time.  This  membrane  is  the  iifual  feat  of  im- 
pofturnations  and  boils,  in  both  which  nature, 
uninterrupted,  always  corrodes  a hole  in  the  flcin ; 
from  whence  we  may  learn,  that  the  bell  way  of 
opening  any  impoftumation  is  by  a hole,  and  that 
too  as  near  the  time  of  its  breaking  naturally  as 
may  be,  that  nature  may  make  the  utmoft  ad- 
vantage of  the  difcharge.  There  is  fometiines  a 
large  kind  of  boil  or  carbuncle  in  this  membrane, 
>vhich  firft  makes  a large  flough  and  a number  of 
fmall  holes  through  the  fkin,  which  in  time  mor- 
tifies and  calls  off,  but  the  longer  the  Hough  is 
fulfered  to  remain,  the  more  it  difcharges,  and  the 
more  advantage  to  the  patient  ; at  the  latter  end  of 
which  cafe  the  matter  has  a bloody  tind;ure,  and  a 
bilious  fmell,  exactly  like  what  comes  from  ulcers 
in  the  liver  ; and  both  thefe  cafes  are  attended  with 
fweet  urine,  as  in  a diabetes. 

l^Mamms,  the  breafts,  feem  to  be  of  the  fame 
ftrudlure  in  both  fexes,  but  largeft  in  women. 
Each  breaft  is  a conglomerate  gland  to  feparate 
milk,  with  its  excretory  dudls  ; which  are  capable 
of  very  great  diftention,  tending  toward  the  nipple, 
which  as  they  approach,  they  unite,  and  make  but 
a few  duds  at  their  exit.  There  are  to  be  met 
with  in  authors  inftances  attefted  of  men  giving 
fuck,  when  they  have  been  excited  by  a vehement 
defire  of  doing  it : and  it  is  a common  obfervation, 
that  milk  will  flow  out  of  the  breafts  of  new-born 
children,  both  male  and  female. 

K 2 


The 


140  EXTERNAL  PARTS, 

The  breafts  and  uterus  in  women,  the  tongue, 
mouth,  and  penis  in  men,  and  the  eyes  in  chil- 
dren, are  the  parts  moft  fubjeft  to  cancers ; yet 
there  is  no  part  where  this  difeahe  has  not  fome- 
times  fixed.  It  is  a matter  of  difpute  among  fome 
furgeons,  whether  cancerous  tumors  fliould  ever  be 
extirpated  or  not,  though  it  is  certain  none  of  thefe 
ever  were  cured  without,  and  being  extirpated, 
there  have  been  many.  The  objefHon  againft  ex- 
tirpation is  this,  that  the  operation  often  provokes 
the  part,  which  otherwife  might  lie  quiet : but  I 
do  not  think  this  is  true  ; in  defperate  cafes,  where 
we  cannot  extirpate,  we  find  the  befl  remedy  is 
plentiful  bleeding,  (v^rhich  alfo  is  nature’s  laft  refort) 
gentle  conftant  evacuations  by  ftool,  and  a vegeta- 
ble diet  ; and  though  phyfic  never  cures  while  the 
tumour  remains,  yet  after  extirpation  it  is  highly 
ufeful,  and  even  the  worft  conffitutions  have  fome- 
tiraes  been  brought  to  their  primitive  ftate.,  An 
eminent  furgeon  in  the  city,  having  a patient  with 
a cancerated  breaft,  extremely  large,  and  fo  much 
ulcerated  that  the  flench  of  it  w!-as  infupportable ; 
file  infifled  upon  the  extirpation,  againft  all  advice, 
with  no  other  hopes  but  to  be  delivered  from  the 
offenfive  fmell.  Some  time  after  the  operation,  the 
wound  looking  extremely  fordid,  he  fprinkled  it 
all  over  with  red  mercury  precipitate,  wLich  put 
the  patient  into  a high  falivation,  upon  which  the 
breaft  grew  clean  and  healed,  the  patient  recover- 
edj  and,  contrary  to  all  expediation,  lived  many 


MEMBRANES  in  general.  141 

years  in  good  health.  From  this  accident  I learnt 
the  ufefulnefs  of  falivating,  after  extirpating  can- 
cerous tumours,  though  nothing  is  more  hurtful  be- 
fore. In  the  extirpation  of  a breaft,  and  ail  other 
tumours,  as  much  fkin  as  is  poffible  Ihould  be  fared; 
for  the  lofs  of  a great  deal  of  fidn  is  fufficient  to 
make  an  incurable  ulcer  in  the  molt  healthful  body, 
and  much  more  fo  in  a bad  conftitution. 


CHAP.  II. 

Of  the  Membranes  in  general. 

Every  diftind:  part  of  the  body  is  covered, 
and  every  cavity  is  lined  with  a fmgle  mem- 
brane, whofe  thicknefs  and  ftrength  is  as  the  bulk  of 
the  part  it  belongs  to,  and  as  the  fridion  to  which 
it  is  naturally  expofed. 

Thofe  membranes  that  contain  diftind  parts, 
keep  the  parts  they  contain  together,  and  render 
their  furfaces  fmooth,  and  lefs  fubjed  to  be  lace- 
rated by  the  adions  of  the  body  ; and  thofe  which 
line  cavities  ferve  to  rendor  the  cavities  fmooth,  and 
lit  for  the  parts  they  contain  to  move  againil. 

The  membranes  of  all  the  cavities  that  contain 
folid  parts,  are  ftudded  with  glands,  or  are  provided 
with  velfels,  which  feparate  a mucus,  to  make  the 
parts  contained  move  glibly  againil  one  another, 
and  not  grow  together ; and  thofe  cavities  which 
are  expofed  to  the  air,  as  the  nofe,  ears,  mouth, 

and 


SALIVARY  GLANDS. 


142 

and  trachea  arteria,  have  their  membranes  befet 
with  glands  which  feparate  matter  to  defend  them 
from  the  outer  air.  Thofe  membranes  that  have 
proper  names,  and  deferve  a particular  defcription, 
will  be  treated  of  in  their  proper  places. 

d 

CHAP.  III. 

Of  the  Salivary  Glands. 

pAROTIS,  or  maxillaris  fuperior,  is  the  larg- 
est of  the  falivary  glands ; it  is  fituate  behind 
the  lower  jaw,  under  the  ear ; its  excretory  duff 
paffes  over  the  upper  part  of  the  malfeter  muf- 
cle,  and  enters  the  mouth  through  the  bucci- 
nator. This  gland  has  its  faliva  promoted  by  the 
motions  of  the  lower  jaw.  Its  duff  paffes  over  the 
tendinous  part  of  the  maffeter  mufcle,  that  it  may 
not  be  compreffed  by  that  mufcle,  which  would 
obflruff  the  faliva  in  it,  though  it  is  frequently  faid 
that  it  paffes  over  that  mufcle  that  it  may  be  com- 
preffed by  it,  to  promote  the  faliva.  In  fheep, 
horfes,  &c.  whefe  jaws  are  long,  this  mufcle  is  in- 
ferred far  from  the  centre  of  motion,  that  the  end 
of  the  jaw  may  be  moved  with  fufficient  ftrength, 
and  that  did  ant  infertion  requiring  a greater  length 
.of  mufcle,  that  its  motion  may  be  quick  enough, 
no  part  of  this  mufcle  could  be  allowed  to  be  ten- 
dinous ; therefore,  it  feems,  to  avoid  the  inconve- 


nience 


SALIVARY  GLANDS. 


H3 

alienee  of  compreffion  from  the  mufcle,  the  du£t  In 
thofe  animals  goes  quite  round  the  lower  end  of  it. 
When  this  dudt  is  divided  by  an  external  wound, 
the  faliva  will  flow  out  on  the  cheek,  uniefs  a con- 
venient perforation  be  made  into  the  mouth,  and 
then  the  external  wound  m.ay  be  healed.  I have 
feen  patients  with  this  gland  ulcerated,  from  which 
there  was  a conftant  effufion  of  faliva,  till  the 
greateft  part  of  the  gland  was  confumed  with  red 
mercury  precipitate  ; and  thenthey  healed  with  little 
trouble.  Hild  A n u s mentions  the  fame  cafe,  which 
for  two  years  had  been  under  the  care  of  a furgeon 
without  fuccefs ; and  was  at  lafl:  cured  by  the  ap- 
plication of  an  adtual  cautery. 

Maxillaris  inferior  is  fituate  between  the  low- 
er jaw  and  the  tendon  of  the  digaftric  mufcle. 
Its  dudt  paifes  under  the  mufculus  mylohyoideus, 
and  enters  the  mouth  under  the  tongue,  near  the 
dentes  inciforii.  I was  at  the  opening  of  a woman 
who  was  fuflbeated  by  a tumor  which  begun  in  this 
gland,  and  extended  itfelf  from  the  flernum  to  the 
parotid  gland  on  one  fide  in  fix  weeks  time,  and  in 
nine  weeks  killed  her ; it  was  a true  feirrhus,  and 
weighed  twenty-fix  ounces.  In  a man  which  I 
dilTedted,  T found  a quantity  of  pus  near  this  gland, 
and  a bundle  of  matter  not  unlike  hair,  as  large  as 
an  hen’s  egg. 

( Sublingualis  is  a fmall  gland  fituated  under  the 
tongue,  between  the  jaw  and  the  ceratogloflus 
mufcle.  In  a calf  I found  feveral  dudts  of  this 

gland 

1 


144  SALIVARY  GLANDS. 

gland  filled  by  an  injedion  into  the  dudt  of  the 
fubmaxillary  gland  ; but  Morgagni  and  others 
fhew,  that  the  ducts  of  this  gland  enter  the  mouth 
directly  from  the  gland  in  feyeral  places  near  the 
grinding  teeth, 

Tonfilla  is  a globular  gland,  about  the  bignefs 
of  a hazel  nut,  fituate  upon  the  pterygoideus  in- 
ternus  mufcle,  between  the  root  of  the  tongue  and 
t^c'^ula.  It  has  no  du£t  continued  from  it,  but 
empties  all  its  fmall  du£ts  into  a finus  of  its  own, 
which  finus,  when  the  gland  is  inflamed,  may  ea- 
fily  be  miftaken  for  an  ulcer.  This  gland  with  its 
fellow  diredt  the  mafticated  aliment  into  the  pha- 
rynx, and  alfo  ferve  for  the  uvula  tq  fhut  down 
upon  when  we  breathe  through  the  nofe.  They  are 
comprefl'ed  by  the  tongue  and  the  aliment,  when 
the  former  raifes  the  latter  over  its  root,  and  there- 
by  opportunely  emit  their  faliva  to  lubricate  the 
food  for  its  eafier  defeent  through  the  pharynx.  A 
feirrhous  tumor  of  either  of  thefe  glands  is  a com- 
mon difeafe,  and  it  adm.its  of  no  remedy  but  ex- 
tirpation. The  beft  way  of  extirpating  them,  is, 
I think,  by  ligature : if  the  gland  is  fmall  at  its 
bafis,  the  ligature  may  be  tied  round  it,  which  I 
have  often  performed  by  fixing  -the  ligature  to  the 
end  of  a probe  bent,  and  fo  drew  it  round  the 
gland,  and  tied  it ; and  in  a few  days  the  glands 
dropped  of : but  meeting  with  other  cafes  of  this 
kind,  where  the  bans  of  the  gland  was  too  large  to 
tie,  I contrived  an  infirument  like  a crooked  needle 

fet 


SALIVARY  GLANDS„ 


H5 

jTet  in  a.handle,  with  an  eye  near  the  point ; I thruft 
this  inftrument,  with  a ligature  into  it  through  the 
bottom  of  the  gland,  and  then  taking  hold  of  the 
ligature  with  a hook,  I drew  back  the  inflruinent ; 
then  drawing  the  double  ligature  forwards,  I divid- 
ed it,  and  tied  one  part  above  and  the  other  below, 
in  the  fame  manner  that  I did  to  extirpate  part  of 
the  omentum  in  the  cure  of  an  hernia,  and  this 
fucceeded  as  w.ell  as  the  former.  See  the  plate  at 
the  latter  end  of  this  book. 

Prefllire  upon  the  furface  of  a gland  very 
much  promoting  the  fecretion  that  is  made  in  it, 
thefe  glands  are  fo  feated  as  to  be  prelfed  by  the 
lower  jaw,  and  its  rnufcles,  which  wnll  be  chiefly 
at  the  time  when  the  fluid  is  wanted ; and  the 
force  with  wLich  the  jaw  mufl:  be  moved,  being 
I as  the  drynefs  _and  hardnefs  of  the  food  mafticated, 
the  fecretion  from  the  glands  depending  very  much 
upon  that  force  ; it  v/ill  alfo  be  in  proportion  to  the 
drynefs  and  hardnefs  of  that  food  v/hich  is  neceiTa- 
ry ; for  all  food,  being  to  be  reduced  to  a pulp, 

I by  being  broke  and  mixed  with  faliva,  before  it 
I can  be  fwallowed  fit  for  digeftion,  the  drier  and 
I harder  foods  needing  more  of  this  matter,  -will  from 
j this  mechanifm  be  fupplied  with  more  than  moift- 
er  foods  in  about  that  proportion  in  vrhich  they 
are  drier  and  harder ; and  the  drier  foods  needinsr 
more  faiiva  than  moiflier,  is  the  reafon  why  we 
tan  eat  lefs,  and  digeft  lefs  of  thefe  than  thofe. 
kVha.t  quantity  of  faliva  thefe  glands  can  feparatc 

from 


I 


!4<5  SALIVARY  GLANDS. 

from  the  blood,  in  a given  time,  will  be  hard  to  de- 
termine, but  in  eating  of  dry  bread  it  cannot  be  lefs 
tnan  the  weight  of  the  bread ; and  many  men, 
in  a little  time,  can  eat  more  dry  bread  than  twice 
the  fize  of  all  thefe  glands  ; and  fome,  that  are  not 
Tifed  to  fmoaking,  can  fpit  half  a pint  in  the  fmoak- 
ing  one  pipe  of  tobacco  ; and  fome  men  in  a fali- 
vation,  have  fpit,  for  days  or  weeks  together,  a 
gallon  in  four  and  twenty  hours  ; and  yet,  I be- 
lieve, all  thefe  glands  put  together,  do  not  weigh 
more  than  four  ounces. 

The  membrane  which  lines  the  mouth  and  pal- 
ate, and  covers  the  tongue,  is  every  where  befet 
with  fmall  glands,  to  afford  faliva  in  all  part#  of 
the  mouth  to  keep  it  moift  ; for  thofe  more  remote 
are  chiefly  concerned  in  time  of  maftication.  Thefe 
fmall  glands  have  names  given  them  according  to 
their  refpeftive  fituations,  as  buccales,  labiales, 
iinguales,  fauciales,  palatinsc,  gingivarum,  and 
uvulares. 

A gland  is  chiefly  compofed  of  a convolution 
of  one  or  more  arteries  of  a confiderable  length, 
from  v^hofe  Tides  arife  a vaft  number  of  excretory 
dudls,  as  the  ladteals  arife  from  the  guts,  to  receive 
in  each  gland  their  proper  juices,  as  the  ladleals  do 
rhe  chyle;  and  though  the  larger  fecretions  are  made 
by  vifible  glands,  yet  unconvolved  arteries  may  alfo 
have  excretory  dudts  for  the  fame  purpofe.  And 
this  way,  I imagine,  fecretions  are  made  from  all 
the  m.embranes  that  line  cavities,  and  fome  others. 

There 


SALIVARY  GLANDS.  147 

There  alfo  arife  from  thefe  arteries  lymphatic  vef- 
fels,  whofe  ufe  feems  to  be  to  take  off  the  thinneft 
part  of  the  blood,  where  a thick  fluid  is  to  be  fe- 
creted,  feeing  they  are  found  in  greateft  plenty  in 
fuch  glands  as  feparate  the  thickefl  fluids,  as  in  . 
the  teflicles  and  liver ; and  it  is  obferv’-able  that,  * 
where  the  thickefl  fecretions  are  made,  the  velocity 
of  the  blood  is  the  leafl,  as  if  it  was  contrived  to 
give  thofe  feemingly  more  tenacious  parts  more 
time  to  feparate  from  the  blood.  The  arteries  that 
compofe  different  glands  are  convolved  in  different 
manners ; but  whether  or  no  their  different  fecre- 
tions depend  at  all  upon  that,  I doubt  will  be  dif- 
ficult- to  difcover.  The  excretory  dudls  arife  from 
the  arteries,  and  unite  in  their  progrefs,  as  the  roots 
of  trees  do  from  the  earth  ; and  as  different  trees, 
plants,  fruits,  and  even  different  minerals,  in  their 
growing,  often  derive  their  diftind!;,  proper,  nu- 
tritious juices  from  the  fame  kind  of  earth  ; fo  the 
excretory  dudls,  in  different  glands,  feparate  from 
the  fame  m.afs  of  blood  their  different  juices  : but 
what  thefe  different  fecretions  depend  upon,  wheth- 
er the'  flrufLure  of  the  parts,  or  different  attrac- 
tions, or  what  elfe,  we  have  no  certainty  about, 
though  this  fubjedl  has  employed  feveral  ingenious 
writers.  For  my  own  part,  from  the  great  fimplic- 
ity  and  uniformity  ufually  feen  in  nature’s  %vorks, 
I am  moil  inclined  to  think  different  fecretions 
arife  from  different  attraflions,  feeing  that  in  plants 
and  minerals  there  feems  to  be  no  other  wmy. 

C H A P. 


14S 


P*£RITONjEUM, 


CHAP. 

Op  the  Peritoneum,  Omentum,  Ductus 
Alimentalis,  and  Mesentery. 

PERITONiE  UM  is  a membrane  which  lines 
the  whole  cavity  of  the  abdomen.  It  contains 
the  liver,  fpleen,  omentum,  ftomach,  guts,  and 
mefentery,  with  all  their  yeffels  and  glands ; the 
upper  part  of  it  is  no  other  than  the  proper  mem- 
brane of  the  diaphragm,  for  there  is  no  more  rea- 
fon  to  call  that,  part  of  the  peritonseum,  than  there 
is  for  calling  the  membrane  on  the  other  fide  of 
the  diaphragm,  part  of  the  pleura  or  mediaftinum. 
The  fore  part  next  the  mufcles  of  the  abdorneii, 
and  their  tendons,  may  be  divided  into  two  lami- 
iise,  yet,  I think,  anatomifts  in  defcribing  the  du- 
plicature  or  lamina  of  the  peritonseum  have  not 
always  meant  this  divilion,  but  have  taken  the  ten- 
dons of  the  tranfverfe  mufcles  for  the  outer  lamina, 
and  confidered  the  other  as  one  membrane,  feeing 
that  it  is  between  thefe  tendons  and  the  peritonaeum 
that  the  water  is  found  in  that  kind  of  dropfy  which 
is  called  the  dropfy  in  l^ie  duplicature  of  the  peri- 
toneum. Upon  the  loins  the  inner  furface  only  is 
fmcoth,  and  the  outer  part  a fort  of  loofe  membra- 
na  adipofa,  in  vrhich  are  contained  the  aorta,  ve- 
na cava,  vafa  fpermatica,  and  pancreas,  with  oth- 
er parts  of  lefs  note.  The  middle  of  the  perito- 
HGCuin  upon  the  loins  is  joined  to  the  mefentery 

in 


OMENTUM,  &c.  149 

in  fuch  a manner,  as  makes  feme  account  it  a pro- 
dudiion  of  the  peritonseum,  and  fome  part  of  the 
external  membrane  of  the  duodenum,  becoming 
one  membrane  with  the  inner  or  fmooth  lamina  of 
the  peritoneum,  and  part  of  the  reftum  is  covered 
in  the  fame  manner ; but  the  kidneys  and  bladder 
of  urine  are  contained  in  a diflinft  duplicature  of 
this  membrane.  The  dropfy  of  the  peritoneum 
may  be  diftinguilhed  by  being  leaft  prominent 
about  the  navel,  for  there  the  tendons  and  the 
peritoneum  will  not  feparate ; and  the  water  in 
thofe  that  I have  difledted,  had  made  the  parts 
where  it  was  contained  as  foul  as  any  ulcer; 
therefore  none  of  them,  I prefume,  could  have 
been  cured  by  operation.  , 

For  the  umbilical  veflels,  fee  chap.  Of  the  foe- 
tus. For  the  proceffus  vaginalis,  chap.  Of  the 
parts  of  generation  in  men. 

Omentum,  or  cawl,  is  a fine  membrane,  larded 
with  fat,  fomewhat  like  net-work.  It  is  fitu- 
ated  on  the  furface  of  the  fmall  guts,  and  refem- 
bles  an  apron  tucked  up  ; its  outer  or  upper  part, 
named  ala  fuperior,  is  connefted  to  the  bottom 
of  the  ftomach,  the  fpleen,  and  part  of  the  in- 
teftinum  duodenum  ; and  thence  defeending  a lit- 
tle lower  than  the  navel,  is  refleded  and  tied  to 
the  inteftinum  colon,  the  fpleen,  and  part  of  the  duo- 
denum ; this  laft  part  is  called  ala  inferior  ; and  the 
(pace  between  the  alse  is  named  burfa.  This  cavi-' 
ty  is  very  diftind  in  moft  brutes,  but  feldom  fo  in 


men. 


tso  DUCTUS  ALIMENTALIS. 

men.  Sometimes  both  alas  are  tied  to  the  liver^ 
and,  in  difeafed  bodies,  to  the  peritonasum.  Its  ufe 
is  to  lubricate  the  guts,  that  they  niay  the  better 
perform  their  periftaltic  motion.  Malpighi  de- 
r fcribes  adipofe  dudls  in  this  membrane  to  carry  the 
fat  from  the  cells  into  the  vena  portae,  and  thinks 
it  a neceflary  ingredient  in  the  bile.  In  dropfies  of 
the  abdomen,  and  in  perfons  who  from  any  other 
caufe  have  died  tabid,  it  is  generally  rotten  and  de- 
cayed ; and  fometimes  the  guts  in  thefe  cafes  adhere 
to  one  another  : but  whether  thefe  adhefions  pro- 
ceed from  the  om.entum’s  ceafmg  to  perform,  its  ' 
office,  or  from  the  periftaltic  motion  of  the  guts 
being  long  difcontinued  through  abPdnence,or  both, 

I cannot  determine. 

Ducftus  alimentalis,  is  the  oefophagus,  ftom-  i 
ach,  and  guts,  viz.  duodenum,  jejunum,  ile-  ^ 
um,  colon,  caecum  or  appendicula  vermiformis,  and 
reftum.  ^ ^ ^ 

CEfophagus,  or  gullet,  is  the  beginning  of  the 
alimentaiy  4ud: ; its  upper  part  is  wide  and  open, 
fpread  behind  the  tongue  to  receive  the  mafticated 
aliment ; it  begins  from  the  bafts  of  the  fcull,  near 
the  proceffus  pterygoides  of  the  fphenoidal  bone,  | 
then  defcending  becomes  round,  and  is  called  va- 
ginalis guise  ; it  runs  from  the  tongue  clofe  to  the 
fpine,  under  the  left  fubclavian  blood  veflels,  into  and  ij 
- through  the  thorax  on  the  left  fide,  then  piercing 
the  diaphragm,  it  immediately  enters  the  ftomach. 

It  is  compofed  of  a thin  outer  coat,  which  is  no 

more 


DUCTUS  ALIMENTALIS.  151 

more  than  a proper  membrane  to  the  middle  or 
mufcular  coat.  The  middle  coat  is  compofed  of 
longitudinal  and  circular  mufcular  fibres,  but  chiefly 
circular,  abundantly  thicker  than  the  fame  coat 
in  the  guts  ; becaufe  this  has  no  foreign  power  to 
affifl;  it,  as  the  guts  have,  and  becaufe  it  is  necef- 
fary  the  food  fhould  make  a fhorter  ftay  here  than 
there.  The  inner  coat  is  a pretty  fraooth  mem- 
brane, befet  with  many  glands,  which  fecrete  a 
mucilaginous  matter,  to  defend  this  miembrane, 
and  render  the  defcent  of  the  aliment  eafy. 

Ventriculus,  the  ftomach,  is  fituated  under  the 
left,  fide  of  the  diaphragm,  its  left  fide  touch- 
ing the  fpleen,  and  its  right  is  covered  by  the  thin 
edge  of  the  liver ; its  figure  nearly  refembles  the 
pouch  of  a bag-pipe,  its  left  end  being  moft  capa- 
cious, the  upper  fide  concave,  and  the  lower  con- 
vex : it  has  two  orifices,  both  on  its  upper  part  ; 
the  left,  through  which  the  aliment  pafies  into  the 
ftomach,  is  named  cardia  ; and  the  right,  through 
which  it  is  conveyed  out  of  the  ftomach  into  the 
duodenum,  is  named  pylorus  ; where  there  is  a 
circular  valve  which  hinders  a return  of  aliment 
out  of  the  gut,  but  does  not  at  all  times  hinder  the 
gall  from  flowing  into  the  ftomach. 

The  coats  of  the  ftomach  are  three  ; the  exter- 
nal membranous,  the  middle  mufcular,  whofe  fi- 
bres are  chiefly  longitudinal  and  circular,  the  in- 
ner membranous,  and  befet  v.  ith  glands,  which 
feparate  a mucus.  This  laft  coat  is  again  divided 

by 


152  DUCTUS  ALIMENTALIS. 

by  anatomifts  into  a fourth,  which  they  call  villofa.. 

As  the  mufcular  coat  of  the  ftomach  contracts,  the 
inner  coat  falls  into  folcis,  which  increafe  as  the  fto- 
mach lefiens,  and  confequently  retard  the  aliment 
moft  when  the  ftomach  is  neareft  being  empty. 

The  manner  in  which  digeftion  is  performed 
has  been  matter  of  great  controverfy.  The  ancients 
generally  fuppofed  the  food  concofted  by  a fermen- 
tation in  the  ftomach  ; but  the  moderns  more  gen- 
erally attribute  it  to  the  mufcular  force  of  the  fto- 
mach; which  Dr.  Pitcairne  has  computed  to  ; 
be  equal  to  a hundred  and  feventeen  thoufand  and  ' 
eighty-eight  pounds  weight  ; to  which  being  added 
the  abfolute  force  of  the  diaphragnt  and  abdominal 
mufcles  (but  for  what  reafon  I am  at  a lofs  to  con- 
ceive, when  fo  fmall  a part  of  that  force  can  be  ex- 
erted this  way)  the  fum  then  will  be  more  than 
twice  as  much  ; a force  indeed  equal  to  the  end  for 
which  he  affigns  it.  Now  this  force  of  the  mufcu- 
lar coat  of  the  ftomach  is  near  forty  times  greater 
than  what  Borelli  has  affigned  to  the  heart, 
which  is  much  ftronger  ; and  Dr.  Keil  has  under- 
taken to  prove,  that  tlie  force  which  the  heart  exerts 
is  not 'thrice  as  many  ounces  as  Borelli  computes 
it  to  be  thoufand  pounds  weight.  Yet  this  is  as 
certain,  as  that  aUion  and  reaction  are  the  fame ; 
that  the  abdominal  mufcles  and  the  diaphragm 
comprefs  the  ftomach  v\^ith  no  greater  force  than 
tliey  do  the  liver  and  all  other  parts  contained  in  the 
abdomen  ; and  that  the  fetus  inutero,  and  all  the 

vifeera 


DUCTUS  ALIMENTALIS.  153 

vifcera  in  the  abdomen,  receive  much  more  of  this 
force,  during  the  time  of  geftation  ; and  yet  nei- 
ther the  foetus,  nor  any  other  contained  part,  is  di- 
gefted  by  that  force  ; and  for  the  force  with  which 
the  ftomach  itfelf  adts,  it  will  be  juft  the  fame  with 
the  reaction  of  the  food  upon  it,  and  therefore 
fliould  be  as  much  more  liable  to  be  digeft.ed  by 
this  and  the  other  force,  than  the  food,  as  it  oftener 
feels  thefe  forces  than  that  (only  that  living  bodies 
are  not  fo  liable  to  digeftion  as  dead  ones ;)  befides, 
it  may  be  demonftrated,  that  the  force  with  which 
the  ftomach  comprefles  any  part  of  its  contents,  is 
not  greater  than  what  is  given  to  equal  parts  of  the 
contents  in  the  fmall  guts  ; for  if  the  moment  of  a 
jnufcle  is  as  its  weight,  and  if  the  mufcular  coat  of 
the  ftomach  does  not  bear  a greater  proportion  to 
the  mufcular  coat  of  a fmall  gut,  than  their  diame- 
ters bear ; a fedtion  of  the  ftomach  having  fo  many 
more  equal  parts  to  prefs  than  a like  fedlion  of  a 
gut,  it  will  require  juft  fo  much  more  force  to  give 
each  part  the  fame  preflure.  Dr.  Drake  has  fup- 
pofed,  that  digeftion  is  performed  in  the  ftomach, 
as  in  Papin’s  Digefter ; in  which  hypothefis,  are 
contained  all  the  abfurdities  of  that  of  Pitcairne, 
with  this  addition,  that  the  ftomach  muft  be  as  ir- 
refiftible  to  diftention  at  that  time,  as  his  iron  pot, 
and  the  orifices  as  forcibly  fecured  ; but  then  in- 
deed it  fhews  how  bits  of  bones,  which  dogs  fwal- 
low,  may  be  retained  in  the  ftomach  without  tear- 
ing it ; which  difficulty,  in  my  opinion.  Dr.  Pit- 
L CAIRNE 


154  DUCTUS  ALIMENTALIS. 

CAIRNE  has  not  fufficiently  accounted  for,  though 
it  is  none  of  the  lead  in  his  hypothefis.  In  gra- 
nivorous  birds,  where  digeftion  is  made  by  mufcu- 
lar  force,  their  fecond  ftomach  is  plainly  contrived 
for  comminuting  or  digefting  their  food  that  way ; 
for  befides  that  it  is  one  of  the  ftrongeft  mufcles  in 
their  bodies,  its  infide  is  defended  with  a hard  and 
llrong  membrane  that  it  may  not  be  torn ; and 
thefe  birds  always  eat  with  their  grain  the  roughed 
and  harded  little  dones  they  can  find,  which  are 
necefiary  for  grinding  their  food,  notwithdanding 
it  is  fird  foaked  in  another  domach,  and  is  alfo 
food  of  very  eafy  digcdion.  In  ferpents,  fome  birds, 
and  feveral  kinds  of  fidi,  which  fwallow  whole 
animals,  and  retain  them  long  in  their  domachs, 
digedion  fcems  to  be  performed  by  a mendruum ; 
for  we  frequently  find  in  their  domachs  animals  fo 
totally  digeded,  before  their  form  is  dedroyed,  that 
their  very  bones  are  made  foft.  In  horfes  and  oxen, 
digedion  is  but  little  more  than  extrading  a tinc- 
ture ; for  in  their  excrements,  when  voided,  we  fee 
the  texture  of  their  food  is  not  totally  dedroyed, 
though  grafs,  in  particular,  feems  to  be  as  eafily  di- 
vided as  any  food  whatever,  and  the  com  they  eat  is 
often  voided  entire  : and  in  the  excrements  of  men, 
are  often  feen  the  fkins  of  fruits  undigeded,  and 
fmall  fruits  fuch  as  currants,  unbroke,  and  worms 
alfo  continue  unhurt,  both  in  the  domach  and  guts. 
Therefore,  by  comparing  cur  domachs  with  thofe 
here  mentioned,  it  appears  t ) me,  that  our  digedion 

is 


DUCTUS  ALIMENTALIS.  155 

is  performed  by  a menftruum,  which  is  chiefly 
faliva,  gently  aflifted  by  the  adion  of  the  ftomach, 
and  the  abdominal  mufcles,  and  by  that  principle 
of  corruption  which  is  in  all  dead  bodies.  For  di- 
geftion  is  no  other  than  corruption  or  putrefaftioa 
of  our  food ; therefore  meats  preferved  from  cor- 
ruption by  fait  or  fpirits,  are  hard  of  digeftion  and 
unwholefome.  Neverthelefs,  when  this  digefting 
menftruum  of  the  ftomach  is  too  crude,  the  fame 
falts  or  fpirits,  moderately  ufed,  become  a remedy ; 
and  though  meat  long  faited  is  fo  very  unwhole- 
fome, it  feems  not  to  be  from  the  fait  itfelf,  but 
the  meat  made  undigeftible  by  being  long  faited  ; 
for  thofe  who  eat  the  greateft  quantity  of  fait  at 
their  meals  are  not  fubjedted  thereby  to  the  fame 
diftempers.  And  this  digefting  menftruum,  when 
the  ftomach  is  empty,  exciting  that  uneaflnefs 
which  we  call  hunger,  our  appetites  and  our  di- 
geftion are  thereby  necelTarily  fuited  both  as  to 
time  and  quantity. 

\Duodenum  is  the  firft  of  the  three  fmall  guts ; 
it  begins  from  the  pylorus  of  the  ftomach,  and  is 
thence  refledxed  downward ; it  firft  pafles  by  the 
gall-bladder,  and  then  under  the  following  gut  and 
mefentery,  and  coming  in  fight  again  in  the  left 
hypochondrium,  it  tjjere  commences  jejunum, 
which  is  the  fecond  of  the  fmall  guts ; but  the 
place  where  this  ends  and  the  other  begins  is  not 
precifely  determined. 

L 2 


Jejunum 


156  DUCTUS  ALIMENTALIS. 

Jejunum  is  fo  called  from  its  being  found,  for 
the  moft  part,  empty  ; it  is  fituated  in  the  regio 
umbilicalis,  and  makes  fomewhat  more  than  a 
third  part  of  the  fmall  guts.  It  is  diftinguifhed 
from  the  following  gut  by  its  coats,  which  are  a 
fmall  matter  thinner  and  lefs  pale.  / ' 

^ Ileum  is  the  continuation  of  the  former,  fitua- 
ted in  the  hypogaftrium,  and  very  often  fome 
part  of  it  in  the  pelvis  of  the  abdomen,  upon  the 
bladder  of  urine,  efpecially  in  women  ; it  enters 
the  colon  on  the  right  fide,  near  the  upper  edge 
of  the  os  ilium.  This  great  length  of  the  fmall 
guts  is  evidently  for  the  convenience  of  a greater 
number  of  ladeals,  that  the  chyle  which  miffes 
their  orifices  in  one  place  may  not  efcape  them  in 
another  j but  thofe  animals  which  fwallow  their 
food  whole,  and  have  it  a long  time  in  their  ftom- 
ach  and  guts,  have  fhorter  guts  and  fewer  ladicals. 
Colon  is  the  firft  of  the  great  guts  ; it  begins  at 
the  upper  edge  of  the  right  os  ilium  ; thence 
afcending  paffes  under  fome  part  of  the  liver,  and 
the  bottom  of  the  ftomach,  from  the  right  hypo- 
chondrium  to  the  left,  and  thence  defcends  to  the 
pelvis  of  the  abdomen. 

Csecum,  or  appendicula  vermiformis,  is  fitu- 
ated on  the  beginning  of  tlje  colon  ; it  is  lefs  than 
an  earth-worm,  with  a fmall  orifice  opening  in- 
to the  colon ; this  gut  has  feldom  any  thing  in 
it.  In  men  it  is  called  one  of  the  large  guts, 
though  it  is  the  fmalleft  by  far ; but  the  miflake 

arifes 


DUCTUS  ALIMENTALIS.  157 

arlfes  from  copying  the  antients,  whofe  defcriptions 
of  all  the  parts  contained  in  the  abdomen,  feem  to 
be  taken  from  dogs;  for  in  them,  and  in  many  other 
animals,  it  is  very  large  : and  fome  fifh  have  them 
in  great  numbers,  but  very  fmall ; I have  counted 
in  a mackarel  above  one  hundred  and  fifty.  > 

1 Redtum  is  the  continuation  of  the  colon  through 
the  pelvis  to  the  anus.  The  lovvrer  end  of  this  gut 
is  the  feat  of  the  true  fiftula  in  ano,  which  ufually 
runs  betwixt  the  mufcular  coat  and  the  inner  coat ; 
it  is  cured  by  opening  it  the  whole  length  into 
the  cavity  of  the  gut ; it  is  yet  better,  if  it  can  be 
done,  to  extirpate  all  that  is  fiftulous  and  fchirrhous, 
for  that  is  a fure  way  to  make  one  operation  perfect 
the  cure.  The  other  kind  of  fiftula,  improperly  fo 
called,  is  an  abfcefs  running  round  the  outfide  of 
the  fphindter,  in  the  ftiape  of  a horfe-ftioe,  being  a 
circle  all  but  where  this  mufcle  unites  with  thofe 
of  the  penis  ; this  is  beft  cured  by  opening  and  re- 
moving part  of  the  outer  fkin.  The  firft  of  thefe 
cafes  happens  ofteneft  in  full  habits,  proceeding  fre- 
quently from  the  piles  ; the  laft  is  generally  a criti- 
cal difeharge,  and  one  of  nature’s  laft  efforts  in  con- 
fumptive  and  fcorbutic  habits  of  body.  The  inver- 
fion  and  Aiding  down  of  this  gut  is  called  prolapfus 
ani,  a difeafe  common  in  children,  efpecially  thofe 
who  are  aiftidted  with  the  ftone,  and  of  not  much 
confequence ; in  men  it  is  more  rare  and  more 
dangerous,  being  generally  attended  with  a Aux  of 
humours.  This  cafe  I have  cured  by  taking  away  a 

piece 


158  DUCTUS  ALIMENTALIS. 

piece  of  the  prolapfed  gut  with  a cauftic,  length- 
ways of  the  gut ; the  wound  difcharged  the  flux  of 
humours,  upon  which  the  gut  was  eafily  reduced, 
and  cicatrifmg  in  that  ftate  it  never  more  fell  down. 

I have  feen  a cafe,  where  a bold  unthinking 
furgeon  having  cut  off  the  prolapfed  part,  the  ci- 
catrix was  fo  hard  and  contracted  that  the  patient 
could  never  after  go  to  ftool  without  a clyfter,  and 
then  not  without  great  mifery. 

Oftentimes  the  piles  occafion  large  tumours  at 
the  lower  end  of  this  gut ; thefe  are  always 
beft  extirpated  by  ligature  ; for  if  they  are  cut, 
they  will  fometimes  bleed  exceffively,  and  it  is  no 
eafy  matter  to  apply  any  thing  to  flop  a flux  of 
blood  in  that  part. 

The  guts  have  the  fame  coats  with  the  ftomach  ; 
the  fibres  of  their  middle  or  mufcular  coat  are  cir- 
cular, or  fpiral,  and  longitudinal ; of  the  latter  but 
very  few.  The  antagonifts  to  thefe  mufcular  fibres 
of  the  ftomach  and  guts,  are  their  contents  preffed 
from  one  place  to  another,  and  the  mufcles  of  the 
abdomen,  for  thefe  prefling  upon  them  alter  their 
form  into  one  lefs  capacious ; which  neceffarily 
extends  their  circular  fibres.  The  great  guts  have 
three  membranes,  or  ligaments,  on  the  outfide,  run- 
ning their  whole  length,  and  fupporting  the  facculi, 
into  which  thofe  guts  are  divided.  The  lefler  guts 
have,  at  very  fmall  diftances,femilunar  valves  placed 
oppofite  to  the  interfaces  of  each  other,  to  prevent 
the  aliment  from  pafling  too  fpeedily  through  the 
^ guts; 


DUCTUS  ALIMENTALIS.  159 

guts  ; and  the  better  to  anfwer  that  end,  they  are 
larger  and  more  numerous  near  the  ftomach,  where 
the  food  is  thinner,  than  they  are  towards  the  colon, 
where  the  food  is  continually  m.ade  thicker  in  its 
progrefs,  by  a difcharge  of  part  of  the  chyle.  This 
contrivance,  fo  necefi'ary  to  men,  becaufe  of  their 
ered:  pofture,  when  they  are  obliged,  by  ficknefs 
or  accidents,  to  lie  along,  becomes  a great  inconve- 
nience, and  calls  for  the  help  of  clyfters  ai?&  purges. 
But  brutes  have  not  thefe  valves,  becaufe  they  are 
not  convenient  in  an  horizontal  pofture.  At  the 
entrance  of  the  ileum  into  the  colon,  arc  two  very 
large  valves,  which  effedually  hinder  the  reg^efs  of 
the  foeces  into  the  ileum.  But  clyfters  licive  been 
frequently  known  to  pafs  them,"^  and  be  vomited 
up ; though  the  excrement  that  is  fometimes  vomited 
up,  I am  inclined  to  think,  is  fuch  as  had  not  pall- 
ed into  the  great  guts.  The  other  valves  in  the 
colon  are  placed  oppolite,  but  not  in  the  fame 
plane,  to  each  other,  and  make,  with  their  ante- 
rior edges,  an  equilateral  triangle  ; but  as  the  gut 
approaches  the  anus,  they  become  lefs  remarkable, 
and  fewer  in  number. 

I All  the  guts  have  in  their  inner  membrane  an 
almoft  infinite  number  of  very  fmali  glands  ; thefe 
glands  will,  efpecially  fome  of  them  in  the  large 
guts,  appear  to  the  naked  eye  when  they  are  dif- 
eafed  : they  are  called  glandulse  pyeriansc. 

The  length  of  the  guts  to  that  of  the  body  is 
as  five  to  one  in  a middle-fized  man  ; in  taller  men 

the 


i6o  MESENTERY. 

the  proportion  is  ufually  lefs,  and  in  fhort  men 
gjpater. ) 

{ Mefentery  is  a membrane  beginning  loofely  up- 
on  the  loins,  and  is  thence  produced  to  all  the  guts  : 
it  preferves  the  jejunum  and  ileum  from  twifting 
in  their  periftaltic  or  vermicular  motion,  and  con- 
fines the  reft  to  their  places.  It  fuftains  all  the 
veflels  going  to  and  from  the  guts,  viz.  arteries, 
veins,  lymphsdu(fts,  lad;eals  and  nerves,  and  alfo 
contains  man^  glands,  called,  from  their  fituation, 
mefentericae.  |The  beginning  of  this  membrane 
from  the  loins,  is  about  three  or  four  inches  broad, 
but  next  the  guts  of  the  fame  length  with  the  fide  of 
the  guts  they  adhere  to,  which  is  in  the  fmall  guts, 
about  a fourth  part  fliorter  than  the  other  fide  ; but 
when  this  membrane  is  feparated  from  the  fmall 
guts,  it  fhrinks,  and  meafures  about  two  thirds  lefs. 

I opened  a boy,  about  twelve  years  old,  that  di- 
ed of  the  iliac  palfion,  vulgarly  called  the  twifting 
of  the  guts  ; the  guts,  ftomach,  duodenum,  and 
jejunum  were  diftended,  with  vapour  and  air,  to 
near  ten  times  their  natural  capacity,  which  fo  com- 
preffed  the  inteftinum  ileum,  that  nothing  could 
pafs  through  it.  The  relations  of  this  boy  could 
give  no  other  account  of  the  caufe  of  this  difeafe, 
than  that  of  his  having  eaten  a large  quantity  of 
raw  young  carrots.  This  cafe  happens  very  fre- 
quently to  lambs  that  have  been  houfed,  and  turned 
out  early  in  the  fpring  to  grafs,  when  the  grafs  is 
very  rank  and  fucculent ; and  alfo  to  horfes,  oxen, 

and 


LIVER. 


i6i 


and  flieep,  when  they  happen  to  feed,  by  any  ac- 
cident, upon  young  beans  or  peas,  or  rich  clover 
grafs,  which  are  very  apt  to  ferment  in  their  ftom- 
achs.  In  thefe  animals  this  cafe  is  commonly  cur- 
ed by  running  a knife  into  their  guts ; fome  in- 
ftances  of  which  I have  feen,  and  have  heard  a 
great  many  reported  ; but  this  cafe  happening  very 
rarely  to  men,  I believe  that  practice  has  never  yet 
been  ufed ; though  the  inftrument  which  is  ufed 
for  tapping  in  a dropfy  of  the  abdomen,  might  do 
it  with  great  eafe  and  fafety.  Some  anatomifts, 
who  have  confidered  the  impoffibility  of  a twitting 
of  the  guts,  which  is  the  vulgar  name  of  this  dif- 
eafe,  have  imagined  that  it  proceeded  from  one 
gut  being  involved  in  another.  Thefe  involutions 
are  found  frequently  in  bodies  that  die  a natural 
death,  and  without  any  inflammation,  or  any  other 
fymptom  of  pain. 


CHAP,  V. 

Of  the  Liver,  Gall-Bladder,  Pancreas 
AND  Spleen. 

The  liver  is  the  largett  gland  in  the  body ; of  a 
dufky  red  colour.  It  is  fituated  immediately  un^ 
der  the  diaphragm  in  the  right  hypochondrium  ; 
its  exterior  fide  is  convex,  and  interior  concave ; 
backward  toward  the  ribs  it  is  thick,  and  thin 
bn  its  fore-part,  where  it  covers  the  upper  fide 

of 


i62  liver. 

of  the  ftomach,  and  fome  of  the  guts  ; the  upper 
fide  of  it  adheres  to  the  diaphragm,  and  is  alfo  tied 
to  it  and  the  fternum  by  a thin  ligament,  which  is 
defcribed  commonly  as  two  ; the  upper  part  called 
fufpenforium,  and  the  anterior  latum : but  either 
of  thefe  names  is  fufficient  for  it  all.  It  is  alfo  tied 
to  the  navel  by  a round  ligament  called  teres  or 
umbilicale,  which  is  the  umbilical  vein  degenerated 
into  a ligament ; it  is  inferted  into  the  liver  at  a 
fmall  lilTure  in  its  lower  edge.  The  ligamentum 
latum,  or  fufpenforium,  fuftains  the  liyer  in  an  eredl 
pofture,  or  rather  fixes  it  in  its  fituation,  while  it 
is  fupported  by  the  other  vifeera,  they  being  com- 
preffed  by  the  abdominal  mufcles  ; in  lying  down 
the  teres  prevents  it  from  preffing  on  the  diaphragm ; 
and  in  lying  on  the  back,  they  both  together  fuf- 
pend  it,  that  it  may  not  comprefs  and  obftrud:  the 
afeending  vena  cava.  It  is  nouriflied  by  the  branches 
of  the  celiac  and  mefenteric  arteries  in  the  liver, 
called  arterisc  hepaticse,  but  its  blood  veffels,  that 
compofe  it  as  a gland,  are  the  branches  of  the  vena 
portse,  which  enters  the  liver,  and  diftributes  its 
blood  like  an  artery,  to  have  the  bile  fecreted  from 
it ; and  the  branches  of  the  cava  in  the  liver,  which 
return  the  redundant  blood  into  the  cava  afeendens : 
it  has  alfo  feveral  branches  of  nerves,  and  a great 
number  of  lymphatics  ; of  which  I fhall  treat  in 
their  refpedtive  places.  Dogs  and  cats,  and  other 
animals,  that  have  a great  deal  of  motion  in  their 
backs,  have  their  livers  divided  into  many  diflincl 

lobules ; 


GALL-BLADDER. 


163 

lobules ; which,  by  moving  one  againft  another, 
comply  with  thofe  nibtions,  which  elfe  would  break 
their  livers  to  pieces. 

The  gall-bladder  is  a receptacle  of  bile,  feated 
in  the  hollow  fide  of  the  liver ; it  is  compofed  of 
one  denfe  coat  fomewhat  mufcular,  which  is  cov- 
ered with  a membrane  like  that  of  the  liver ; and 
is  alfo  lined  wdth  another,  that  cannot  eafily  be  fep- 
arated.  Modern  anatomills  have  defcrlbed  a num- 
ber of  fmall  dudts  leading  from  the  liver  to  the  gall- 
bladder, by  which  they  fuppofe  the  gall-bladder  is 
filled  ; and  thefe  I thought  I had  feen  in  a human 
body  that  died  of  a jaundice,  when  I was  a very 
young  anatomift  ; but  never  being  able  to  fee  any 
fince  in  any  animal,  though  I have  made  very  dili-  — ' - 

gent  inquiry  by  experiments  and  difledtion,  I am  ^ 

now  perfuaded  that  there  are  no  fuch  dudts  ; for  if 
they  are  too  little  to  be  feen  or  filled  by  injedlions, 

I think  they  are  too  little  for  the  end  for  which 
they  are  affigned.  As  to  the  argument  for  the  ex- 
iftence  of  fuch  dudts,  which  is  fetched  from  the 
difficulty  of  the  gall-bladder’s  being  filled  through 
the  dudlus  cyfticus  from  the  dudtus  hepaticus,  I 
think  it  is  of  little  weight,  feeing  the  veficulje  femi- 
nales  arp  filled  with  a thicker  fluid  through  a lefs  di- 
red:  paffage.  From  the  gall-bladder  towards  the  du- 
odenum runs  a dud  called  cyfticus  ; and  from  the 
liver  to  this  dud  one  called  hepaticus,  which  car- 
ries off  the  gall  this  way,  when  the  gall-bladder 
is  full ; then  the  dudus  cyfticus  and  hepaticus 

being 


GALL-BLADDER. 


164 

being  united,  commence  dudus  communis  chole- 
dochus,  which  enters  the  duodenum  obliquely 
about  four  inches  below  its  beginning.  The  ori- 
fice of  this  dud  in  the  gut  is  fomewhat  eminent, 
but  has  no  caruncle,  as  is  commonly  faid.  As 
the  liver,  from  its  fituation  in  the  fame  cavity  with 
the  ftomach,  will  be  moft  preffed,  and  confequent- 
ly  feparate  moft  gall  when  the  ftomach  is  fulleft, 
which  is  the  time  when  it  is  moft  wanted ; fo  the 
gall-bladder,  being  feated  againft  the  duodenum, 
it  will  have  its  fluid  preffed  out  by  the  aliment 
paffing  through  that  gut,  and  confequently  at  a 
right  time  and  in  due  proportion ; becaufe  the 
greater  that  quantity  of  aliment  is,  the  greater  will 
be  the  compreffion  ; and  fo  the  contrary. 

I know  no  way  of  computing,  with  any  exad- 
nefs,  the  quantity  of  bile  that  is  ufually  fecreted  by 
the  liver  in  a given  time  ; but  if  it  is  four  times  as 
much  as  all  the  falivary  glands  fecrete,  it  may  be 
twenty-four  ounces  for  every  meal : to  which  be- 
ing added  fix  ounces  of  faliva,  which,  from  what 
is  obferved  in  the  chapter  of  the  falivary  glands,  I 
think  will  appear  a moderate  computation : and  | 
fuppofing  the  pancreas  in  the  fame  time  fecretes 
three  ounces,  there  will  then  be  thirty-three  :| 
ounces  of  fluids  feparated  for  the  digeftion  of  one  1 
meal  ; and  that  thefe  neceffary  fluids  may  not  be  , 
wafted  in  fuch  quantities,  they  pafs  into  the  blood  j 
with  the  chyle,  and  may  be  foon  feparated  again  for 
the  fame  ufe  j and  very  likely,  fome  of  the  fame  bile 

may 


PANCREAS. 


165 

may  be  employed  more  than  once,  for  digefting  part 
of  the  fame  meal ; and  as  the  liver  exceeds  all  the 
glands  in  the  body  in  magnitude,  and  its  excreto- 
ry duds  ending  in  the  duodenum,  it  feems  to  me 
to  be  much  more  capable  of  making  thofe  large 
feparations  from  the  blood,  which  are  procured  by 
cathartics,  than  the  fcarce  vifible  glands  of  the  guts. 
The  liver  ordinarily  weighs,  in  a middle-hzed  man, 
about  three  pounds  twelve  ounces,  the  pancreas 
three  ounces,  and  the  fpleen  fourteen  ounces.  I 
have  feen  a difeafed  liver  in  a man  that  weighed 
fourteen  pounds  four  ounces  ; and  in  a boy  but  nine 
years  old,  that  died  hydropic,  the  liver  full  of  hy- 
datids, and  cyfts  of  hydatids  adhering  to  it,  which 
together  weighed  feven  pounds  one  ounce  and  a 
half,  though  feveral  pints  of  water  had  been  let  out 
of  it  before.  The  fpleen  in  the  fame  boy,  together 
with  the  hydatids  contained  in  its  membrane, 
weighed  three  pounds.  In  a man  I found  a difeafed 
fpleen,  weighing  five  pounds  two  ounces  ; and  in 
an  old  man,  fix  foot  high,  I found  a found  liver 
weighing  no  more  than  twenty-eight  ounces,  and 
the  fpleen  but  ten  ounces  : and  in  a man  that  had 
been  cured  of  a dropfy  I found  a polypus  very  folid, 
almoft  filling  the  large  branches  of  the  porta  in  the 
liver,  and  a ftone  between  the  liver  and  gall-blad- 
der, larger  than  a nutmeg. 

Pancreas,  the  fweet-bread,  is  a large  gland 
of  the  falivary  kind,  lying  acrofs  the  upper  and 
back  part  of  the  abdomen,  near  the  duodenum  ; it 

has 


i66 


PANCREAS. 


has  a fhort  excretory  du£t,  about  half  as  lafge  as  a 
crow  quill,  though  it  is  commonly  painted  as  large 
as  the  dudlus  communis  choledocus : it  always  en- 
ters the  duodenum  together  with  the  bile  dud; ; but 
in  dogs  fome  diftance'from  it ; and,  I think,  al- 
ways in  two  duds  diftant  from  one  another.  The 
juice  of  this  gland,  together  with  the  bile,  helps  to  ‘ 
complete  the  digeftion  of  the  aliment,  and  renders 
it  fit  to  enter  the  ladeal  vefTels.  In  a man  that  died 
of  a jaundice,  I found  the  dudus  communis  chole- 
dochus  conflrided  by  a fcirrhous  pancreas,  the 
gall-bladder  extended  to  the  fize  of  a goofe  egg, 
and  all  the  duds  to  twice  their  natural  bignefs. 
This  is  the  cafe  in  which  I thought  I had  fo  plainly 
feen  the  cyftihepatic  duds  : I once  faw  the  dudus 
cyfticus  obftruded,  without  the  gall-bladder  be-  • 
ing  diftended,  which,  I think,  furnifhes  us  with^jj 
a very  probable  argument  againft  the  exiftenee  of  J 
cyftihepatic  duds.  In  thofe  who  die  of  the  jaun-|i: 
dice,  for  the  moft  part  are  found  in  the  gall-bladder' ■ 
and  the  biliary  duds  concretions  of  bile  fo  light  as 
to  fwim  in  water,  yet  are  called  gall-ftones  ; thefe 
caufe  the  jaundice,  by  obftruding  the  duds  ; many 
of  thofe  who  have  been  cured  of  this  difeafe,  have 
had  great  numbers  of  thefe  ftones  found  in  their  ex- 
crements. A patient  of  mine,  who  had  voided  by 
ftool  feveral  of  thefe  ftones,  had  afterwards  two  of  ii 
half  an  inch  diameter,  which  made  their  way 
through  the  integuments  of  the  abdomen,  and  was 
cured  without  much  pain.  Oxen,  as  the  fame  gen-  i 

tleman 


r 


SPLEEN. 


167 


^^man  informed  me,  who  have  been  long  fed  upon 
rymeat,  abound  with  them  ; while  others,  fed  with 
them,  and  afterwards  turned  to  grafs,  when  killed, 
ari  found  without  them.  This  gentleman  could 
^ never  eaL  any  herbs.  He  alfo  informed  me  of  a 
I PhvjicijJl  in  France,  that  with  great  reputation 
jaundice  by  giving  his  patients  large 
quantitieik^  of  the  juice  of  herbs. 

, The  fpieen  is  feated  in  the  left  hypcchondriurn, 
immediately  under  the  diaphragm,  and  above  the 
kidney,  between  the  ftomach  and  the  ribs  ^ it  IS 
fupperted  by  the  fub-contained  parts,  and  fixed  to 
its  place  by  an  adhefion  to  the  peritonseum  and  dia- 
phragm ; it  is  alfo  connefled  to  the  omentum,  as 
has  been  obferved.  The  figure  of  it  is  a fort  of  de- 
preffed  oval,  near  twice  as  long  as  broad,  and  almoft 
twice  as  broad  as  thick.  Sometimes  it  is  divided  into 
lobules,  but  for  the  moft  part  has  only  one  or  two 
fmall  fiflures  on  its  edge,  and  fometimes  none ; in 
its  colour  it  refembles  caft  iron.  The  inner  texture, 
in  brutes,  is  vehicular,  like  the  penis ; in  which 
veficles  are  found  grumous  blood,  and  final!  bodies 
like  glands  : but  Ruysch  denies  that  the  human 
fpieen  is  of  the  fame  texture.  The  fpieen  I har^e 
feen  taken  out  pf  a dog,  without  any  remarkable 
inconvenience  to  him.  I have  twice,  in  a human 
body,  feen  three  fpleens,  twice  two,  and  once  four ; 
fome  of  thefe  were  very  fmall,  others  nearly  equal, 
but  altogether  in  any  of  thefe  bodies  were  not 
larger  than  the  one  v/hich  is  ufually  found. 

_ CHAR 


i6S 


VASA  LACTEA. 


: 


CHAP.  VI. 


Of  the  Vasa  Lactea. 


f 


Vasa  la^lea  are  the  venae  ladleae,  receptacuriiiA 
chyli,  and  du£tus  thoracicus. 

Vens  la£teae,  &c.  are  a vaft  number  ^ very- 
fine  pellucid  tubes,  beginning  from  the  fiTiall  guts, 
and  proceeding  thence  thuough  the  n/efentery ; 
they  frequently  unite,  and  form  fewer  and  larger 
veffels,  which  firft  pafs  through  the  mefenteric 
glands,  and  then  into  the  receptaculum  chyli.  Thcfe 
veffels,  ere  they  arrive  at  the  mefenteric  glands,  or 
in  dogs  the  pancreas  afellii,  which  is  thefs  glands 
collected,  are  called  venae  ladtese  primi  generis ; and 
thence  to  their  entrance  into  the  receptaculum  chy- 
li, venae  ladeae  fecuridi  generis.  The  office  of  thefe 
veins  is  to  receive  the  fluid  part  of  the  digefted  ali- 
ment, which  is  called  chyle,  and  convey  it  to  the 
receptaculum  chyli,  that  it  may  be  thence  carried 
through  the  du£tus  thoracicus  into  the  blood  veflTels. 

For  the  following  excellent  defcription,  thus 
marked  “ , of  the  receptaculum  chyli,  and  duftus 
thoracicus,  I am  obliged  to  Mr.  Monro. 

“ Receptaculum  chyli  pecqueti,  or  faccus  lac- 
“ teus  van  home,  is  a membranous  fomewhat 
“ pyriform  bag,  two  thirds  of  an  inch  long, 
“ one  third  of  an  inch  over  in  its  largefl:  part, 
“ when  collapfed  ; fituated  on  the  firft  vertebra 
“ lumbrorum,  to  the  right  of  the  aorta,  a little  higher 

“ than 


VASA  LAGTEA. 


169 

than  the  arteria  emulgens  dextra,  under  the  right 
“ inferior  mufcle  of  the  diaphragm.  It  is  formed 
“ by  the  union  of  three  tubes ; one  from  under 
“ the  aorta,  the  fecond  from  the  interftice  of  the 
“ aorta  and  cava,  the  third  from  under  the  emulgents 
“ of  the  right  fide.  The  facchus  chyliferas  at  its 
fuperior  part  becoming  gradually  frr,:iller,  is  con- 
“ traded  into  a llender  membranous  pipe  of  about 
“ a line  diameter,  well  known  by  the  name  of  ^ 

“ Dudus  thoracicus.  This  paffes  betwixt  the 
“ appendices  mufculofs  diaphragmatis,  on  the 
“ right  of,  and  fomewhat  behind  the  aorta,  then 
lodged  in  the  cellular  fubftance  under  the  pleu- 
“ ra ; it  mounts  between  this  artery  and  vena  fine 
“ pari,  or  azygos,  as  far  as  the  fifth  vertebra 
“ thoracis,  where  it  is  hid  by  the  azygos,  as  this 
“ vein  rifes  forward  to  join  the  cava  defcendens  ; 
“ after  which  the  dud  palfes  obliquely  over  to  the 
“ left  fide  under  the  oefophagus,  aorta  defcendens, 
“ and  great  curvature  of  the  aorta,  until  it  reaches 
“ the  left  carotid,  ftretching  farther  towards  the 
*‘left  internal  jugular,  by  a circular  turn,  whofe 
“ convex  part  is  uppermofl : at  the  top  of  this  arch 
“ it  fplits  into  two  for  one  half  line,  the  fuperior 
“ branch  receiving  into  it  a large  lymphatic  from 
“ the  cervical  glands.  This  lymphatic  appears,  by 
“ blowing  and  injedions,  to  have  two  valves  ; 
“ when  the  two  branches  are  united,  the  dud  con- 
“ tinues  its  courfe  to  the  internal  jugular,  behind 
” which  it  defcends,  and  immediately  at  the  left 
M • “ fide 


170 


VASA  LACTEA. 


“ licie  of  the  infertioii  of  this  vein,  enters  the  fu-^ 
“ perior  and  pofterior  part  of  the  left  fubclavian, 
“ wiiofe  internal  membrane  duplicated  forms  a fe- 
“ mihinar  externally  convex  valve  that  covers  two 
“ thirds  of  the  orilice  of  the  du£t.  Immediately 
“ below  this  orifice  a cervical  vein  from  the  muf- 
ciili  fcalenirenters  the  fubclavian.  The  thin  coat 
“ and  valves,  commonly  ten  or  twelve,  of  this  dud^ 
“ are  lb  generally  known,  I need  not  mention  them. 
“ In  my  notes  I find  little  variation  in  the  recep- 
“ taculum,  only  its  different  capacities  in  different 
“ fubjecls,  and  fometimes  more  diidts  concurring 
“ in  the  formation  of  it.  The  diameter  of  the  dud: 
“ varies  in  moft  bodies,  and  in  the  fame  fubjed;  is 
“ uniform,  but  frequently  fudden  enlargements  or 
“ facculi  of  it  are  obfervable.  The  divifions  which 
“ authors  mention  of  this  dud  within  the  thorax 
“ are  very  uncertain.  In  a woman  I diffeded  laft 
“ fummer,  at  the  eighth  vertebra  thoracis,  one 
branch  climbed  over  the  aorta,  and  about  the 
“ fifth  vertebra  flipped  back  again  under  that  artery 
“ to  the  other  branch,  which  continued  in  the  or- 
“ dinary  courfe.  Laft  winter  I found  this  dud  of 
“ a man  difcharging  itfelf  entirely  into  the  right 
“ fubclavian  vein.  The  precife  vertebra,  where  it 
“ begins  to  turn  towards  the  left,  is  alfo  uncertain. 
“ Frequently  it  does  not  fplit  at  its  fuperior  arch  j 
“ in  which  cafe  a large  faccus  is  found  near  its  aper- 
“ ture  into  the  fubclavian  vein.  Generally  it  has 
“ but  one  orifice,  though  I have  feen  two  in  one 


VASA  LACTEA. 


171 

*■  body,  and  three  In  another  ; nay,  fometlines  it 
“ divides  into  two  under  the  curvature  of  the  great 
“ artery  ; one  goes  to  the  right,  another  to  the  left 
fubclavian  ; this  however  is  very  rare.  The  lym- 
“ phatic^  which  enters  the  fuperior  arch,  is  often. 
“Tent  from  the  thyroid  gland.” 

Suppofing  there  ordinarily  palTes  five  pounds 
of  chyle  in  a day  through  the  ladleals,  and  that 
four  ounces  of  this  only  are  added  to  the  blood 
(though  it  may  be  any  other  quantity,  for  aught  I 
know)  and  that  a man  neither  decreafes  or  increaf- 
es  during  this  time,  then  ail  the  reparations  from 
the  fluids  and  folids  mufl;  be  juft  five  pounds  ; four 
ounces  of  which  muft  be  thofe  fluids  and  particles 
of  folids,  which  are  become  unprofitable  ; and  the 
remaining  four  pounds  twelve  ounces  will  ferve  as  a 
vehicle  to  carry  the  four  ounces  off* : fo  that  we  fee 
for  what  reafon  more  fluids  are  carried  into  the 
blood  than  are  to  be  retained  there,  and  how  the 
body  is  by  the  fame  means  both  nouriftied  and  pre- 
ferved  in  health. 


M 2 


CHAP. 


172  PLEURA,  MEDIASTINUM, 


CHAP.  VII. 

Of  the  Pleura,  Mediastinum,  Lungs-, 
Pericardium,  and  Heart. 

Pleura  is  a fine  membrane  which  lines  the 
whole  cavity  of  the  thorax,  except  on  the  dia- 
phragm, which  is -covered  with  no  other  than 
its  own  proper  membrane.  The  back  part  of  it 
is  extended  over  the  great  vefTels,  like  the  perito- 
ncEum  ; and  in  regard  this  membrane  palTes  partly 
under  thefe  veflels,  as  the  peritonaeum  does  in  the 
abdomen,  they  may  be  faid  to  lie  in  a duplicature 
of  it ; it  ferves  to  make  the  infide  of  the  thorax 
fmooth  and  equal.  7 

Mediailinum  divides  the  thorax  lengthways, 
from  the  fternum  to  the  pericardium  and  pleura, 
which  is  a very  fhort  fpace,  but  in  many  brutes 
very  confiderable.  It  divides  into  two  in  men,  but 
in  brutes  it  is  fingle  ; it  divides  the  thorax  not  ex- 
adtly  in  the  middle,  but  towards  the  left  fide,  and 
is  fo  difpofed,  that  the  two  cavities,  into  which  it 
divides  the  thorax,  do  not  end  toward  this  mem- 
brane in  an  angle,  but  a fegment  of  a circle  ; it 
hinders  one  lobe  of  the  lungs  from  incommoding 
the  other,  as  in  lying  on  one  fide  the  uppermofl: 
might  do  ; and  prevents  the  diforders  of  one  lobe  of 
the  lungs  from  affedting  the  other.  ^ 

. The  lungs  are  compofed  of  two  lobes,  one.feated 
©n  each  fide  of  the  mediailinum  j each  of  which 

lobfft 


AND  LUNGS. 


173 

lobes  are  fubdivided  into  two  or  three  lobules, 
which  are  moft  diftindtly  divided  in  fuch  animals- 
as  have  moft  motion  in  their  backs,  for  the  fame  end 
that  the  liver  is  in  the  fame  animals.  They  are  each 
compofed  of  very  fmall  cells,  which  are  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  afpera  arteria  or  bronchos.  The 
figure  of  thefe  cells  is  irregular  ; yet  they  are  fitted 
to  each  other  fo  as  to  have  eommon  hides,  and  leave 
no  void  fpace.  Into  thefe  cells  the  blood  vefi'els  dif- 
charge  a large  quantity  of  lymph,  or  materia  per- 
fpirabilis,  which  at  once  keeps  them  from  being  dri- 
ed by  the  air,  and  makes  a large  and  neceffary  dif- 
charge  from  the  blood,  as  has  already  been  obferv-, 
ed  upon  the  fubj  edf  of  perfpiration  through  the  fkin.) 
Dr.  Willis  has  given  a very  particular  defcription 
of  the  inner  texture  of  the  luligs,  but  it  is  only  imh 
aginary  and  falfe,  as  he,  and  they  who  have  copied 
his  cuts  and  defcriptions,  could  not  but  have  known, 
if  they  had  ever  made  the  leaft  inquiry  into  the  lungs 
of  any  animal  ; nor  is  his  account  of  the  lymphat- 
ics on  the  furface  pf  the  lungs,  at  all  more  true 
than  that  of  their  texture..  In  the  membranes 
of  thefe  cells  are  diftributcd  the  branches  of  the 
pulmonary  artery  and  vein.  The  known  ufes  of 
the  air’s  entering  the  lungs,  are  to  be  inftrumental 
in  fpeech,  and  to  convey  effluvia  into  the  nofe,  as 
it  paffes  for  the  fenfe  of  fmelling  ; but  the  great 
ufe  of  it,  by  which  life  is  preferved,  I think  we 
do  not  underftand.  By  fome  the  force  of  the  air  is 
thought  to  feparate  the  globuli  of  the  blood  that 

have 


LUNGS. 


174 

have  cohered  in  the  flow  circulation  through  the 
veins ; and  this  opinion  feems  to  be  favoured  by 
the  many  inftances  of  polypufes,  which,  are  large 
concretions  of  the  globuli  of  the  blood,  found  in 
the  veins  near  the  heart,  and  in  the  right  auricle 
and  ventricle  of  the  heart ; and  their  being  fo  feldom 
found  in  the  pulmonary  veins,  or  in  the  left  auricle 
or  ventricle  of  the  heart,  or  in  any  of  the  arteries  ; 
but  if  it  is  true  that,  while  the  blood  palTes  through 
the  lungs,  many  cohering  globuli  are  feparated,  yet 
it  remains  to  be  proved  that  thefe  feparations  arc 
made  by  the  force  of  the  air.  Dr.  Keil  has  com- 
puted the  force  of  the  air  in  the  ftrongeft  exfpira- 
tions  againft  the  fides  of  all  the  veficles,  to  be  equal 
to  fifty  thoufand  pound  weight  j which  though  we 
fhould  grant,  we  fhall  ftill  find  the  moment  of  the 
air  in  the  lungs  exceeding  fmall  in  any  fmall  fpace. 
For  the  velocity  with  which  the  air  moves  in  the 
lungs  is  as  much  lefs  than  that  with  which  it  moves 
in  the  wind-pipe,  as  the  fquare  of  a fediion  of  the 
cells  in  the  lungs  is  greater  than  the  fquare  of  a fee- 
tion  of  the  wind-pipe  ; and  therefore  if  the  fquarq 
of  all  the  extreme  blood-veflels  in  the  lungs  do  not 
bear  a greater  proportion  to  the  fquare  of  the  large 
pulmonary  vefiels  than  the  fquare  of  the  cells  do 
to  the  wind-pipe,  and  if  the  blood  in  thefe  large  vef- 
fels  moves  as  faft  as  the  air  in  the  wind-pipe,  then  the 
blood  moving  in  the  fmallcft  vefiels  of  the  lungs 
with  a velocity  equal  to  that  of  the  air  in  the  cells, 
the  blood  will  have  as  much  more  attrition  frorn 

the 


LUNGS. 


U5 

the  power  that  moves  it  in  its  own  veiTeis,  than  the 
air  can  give  upon  them,  as  blood  is  heavier  than 
air.  Befides,  air  preffing  equally  to  all  Tides,  and 
the  globuli  of  the  blood  fwimming  in  a fluid  ; this 
prefllire,  be  it  what  it  v.dli,  I think,  can  be  of  lit- 
tle ufe  to  make  fuch  feparations.  Indeed  it  may 
be  objedted  that  the  greateft  prefTure  is  in  exfpira- 
tion,  yet  that  furely  cannot  be  very  great,  while 
the  air  has  fo  free  a palTage  cut  of  them.  Others 
have  thought,  that  the  air  enters  the  blood-A’'eiTel3 
from  the  cells  in  the  lungs,  and  mixes  with  the 
blood ; but  this  opinion,  however  probable,  wants 
fufficient  experiments  to  prove  it ; air  being  found 
in  the  blood,  as  it  certainly  is,  is  no  proof  of  its 
entering  this  way,  becaufe  it  may  enter  with  the 
chyle : nor  is  the  impollibility  which  has  been 
urged  of  its  entering  at  the  lungs  without  the  blood 
being  liable  to  come  out  the  fame  way  into  the  ve- 
ficles  of  the  lungs,  a good  argument  to  the  contra- 
ry ; for  if  a pliable  du6t  pafles  between  the  mem- 
branes of  a veflel,  through  a fpace  greater  than 
the  fquare  of  its  orifice,  no  fluid  can  return,  becaufe 
the  prefllire  which  Ihould  force  it  back  will  be 
greater  againfl;  the  Tides  of  that  dudl  than  its  orifice  : 
which  is  the  cafe  of  the  bile-duft  entering  the  duo- 
denum, and  the  ureters  entering  the  bladder.  I 
think  the  moft  probable  argument  for  the  air’s  en- 
tering into  the  blood  by  the  lungs,  or  rather  Tome 
particular  part  of  the  air,  may  be  fetched  from  a 
known  experiment  of  each  man  in  a diving  b^ell 

wanting 


LUNGS. 


176 

wanting  near  a gallon  of  frelh  air  in  a minute  ; and 
if  preffure  only  was  wanted  in  this  cafe,  they  often 
defeend,  till  the  prefiure  of  the  air  is  three  or  four 
times  what  it  is  upon  the  fiirface  of  the  earth,  with- 
out any  advantage  from  that  preffure  ; and  animals 
dying  fo  foon  in  air  that  has  been  burnt,  and  their 
being  fo  eafdy  intoxicated  by  breathing  air  much 
impregnated  with  fpirituous  liquors,  are  alfo  argu- 
ments of  a paffage  this  way  into  the  blood.  Befides, 
if  preffure  of  the  air  in  the  cells  of  the  lungs  is  the 
only  ufe  of  it,  I do  not  fee  but  enough  of  that  may 
be  had  while  a man  is  hanging,  if  the  mufcles  of 
the  thorax  do  but  adt  upon  the  air  -v^ich  was 
left  in  the  thorax  when  the  rope  was  firft  fixed, 
and  yet  death  is  brought  about  by  hanging  no  other 
way  than  by  interrupting  of  the  breath,  have 
found  by  certain  experiments.  Dr.  DO.KE  has 
endeavoured  to  fhew,  that  the  ufe  of  refpiration  is 
to  aflift  the  fyftole  of  the  heart ; but  this  ufe  re- 
quires that  the  fyftole  and  diaftole  of  the  heart 
fhould  keep  time  with  exfpiration  and  infpiration, 
which  is  contrary  to  experience,  ^^he  lungs  of 
animals,  before  they  have  been  dilated  with  air,  are 
fpecifically  heavier  than  water ; but  upon  inflation 
they  become  fpecifically  lighter,  and  fwim  in  wa- 
ter ; which  experiment  may  be  made  to  difeover 
whether  a dead  child  was  ftill  born,  or  not ; but  if 
the  child  has  breathed  but  a little,  and  the  experi- 
ment is  made  long  after,  the  lungs  may  be  collapfed 
and  grow  heavier  than  water,  as  I have  experiment- 

ed) 


pericardium!^  and  HEART.  177 

ed,  which  may  fometimes  lead  a man  to  give  a 
wrong  judgment  in  a court  of  judicature,  but  then 
it  will  be  on  the  charitable  fide  of  the  queftion. 
Adhefions  of  the  lungs  to  the  pleura  are  in  men  fo 
common,  that  I know  not  how  to  call  it  a difeafe  5 

-ft  adult 
if  the 

^ Pericardkim.,  ..or  heart-^irfe,  is  an  exceeding 
ftrong  nfenb'tane  which  covers  the  heart ; its 
fide  next  the  great  veflels  is  'partly  connected  to 
them,  and  partly  to  the  bafts  of  the  heart,  but, 
I think,  not  properly  perforated  by  thofe  veftels  ; 
and  its  lower  fide  is  infepar^ble  from  the  tendinous 
part  of  the  diaphragm,  but  not  fo  in  brutes,  in 
fome  of  which  there  is  a membranous  bag  between 
it  and  the  diaphragm,  which  contains  a lobule  of 
the  lungs.  It  inclofes  all  the  heart  to  its  bafts  ; 
its  ufes  are  to  keep  the  heart  in  its  place,  without 
interrupting  its  office,  to  keep  it  from  having  any 
fridlion  with  the  lungs,  and  to  contain  a liquor 
to  lubricate  the  furface  of  the  heart,  and  abate  its 
friction  againft  the  pericardium. 

, The  heart  is  a mufcle  of  a conic  figure,  with 
two  cavities  or  ventricles  ; its  bafis  is  fixed  by  the 
veflels  going  to  and  from  it,  upon  the  fourth  and 
fifth  vertebras  of  the  thorax ; its  apex,  or  point, 
is  inclined  downward  and  to  the  left  fide,  where 
it  is  received  in  a cavity  of  the  left  lobe  of  the 
lungs,  as.  may  be  obferved,  the  lungs  being  extended 

w'ith 


they  being  found  fo  more  or  lefs  in  mo 
perfons,  and  wilhouts  any  inconvenience, 
lumrs  are  not  rotten."  ■'l 


jyS  HEAV'.T. 

with  air.  This  incumbrance  on  the  left  lobe  of  the 
lungs,  I imagine,  is  the  caufe  of  that  fide’s  being 
moft  fubjedl  to  thofe  pains  which  are  ufually  called 
pleuritic,  which  I have  ever  found  upon  dilTe^ting 
of  them  to  be  inflammations  in  the  lungs. 

At  the  bafis  of  the  heart,  on  each  fide,  are  fitu- 
ated  the  two  auricles  to  receive  the  blood  ; the  right 
from  the  two  venae  cava^,  and  the  left  from  the  pul- 
monary veins  ; in  the  right,  at  the  meeting  of  the 
cavae,  is  an  eminence  called  tuberculum  Loweri, 
which  directs  the  blood  into  the  auricle  ; immedi- 
ately belov/  this  tubercle,  in  the  ending  of  the  cava 
afcendens,  is  the  veftigium  of  the  foramen  ovale 
(vid.  chap.  Of  the  foetus  ;)  and  near  this,  in  the 
auricle,  is  the  mouth  of  the  coronary  veins.  Both 
auricles  are  ftrengthened  by  mufcular  columnae,  like 
the  ventricles.  The  left  is  much  lefs  than  the  right ; 
but  the  difference  is  fupplied  by  a large  mufcular 
cavity,  which  the  veins  from  the  lungs  afford  in  that 
place.  The  fides  of  this  mufcular  cavity  are  thicker 
than  the  fides  of  the  right  auricle,  in  about  that 
proportion,  in  which  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart 
is  ftronger  than  the  right ; their  ufes  being  to  re- 
ceive blood  from  the  veins  that  lead  to  the  heart, 
and  prefs  it  into  the  ventricles,  a flrength  in  each  au- 
ricle proportionable  to  the  ftrength  of  the  ventricle 
that  it  is  to  fill  with  blood,  feems  neceffary : and 
this  different  thicknefs  of  the  coats  of  the  auricles 
makes  the  blood  in  the  left,  which  is  thickefl,  ap- 
pear through  it  of  a paler  red ; but  when  it  is  let 

out 


HEART. 


179 

out  of  the  auricles,  it  appears  alike  from  both;  which, 
they  would  do  well  to  examine,  who  affirm  the 
blood  returns  from  the  lungs  of  a more  florid  coir- 
our  than  it  went  in ; and  offer  it  as  an  argument 
of  the  blood’s  being  mixed  with  air  in  the  lungs. 
The  ventricles  or  cavities  in  the  heart  which  receive 
the  blood,  are  hollow  mufcles,  or  two  cavities  in 
one  mufcle,  whofe  fibres  interfedt  one  another,  fo 
as  to  make  the  prelTure  of  the  heart  upon  the  blood 
more  equal  and  effedlual,  and  are  alfo  lefs  liable  to 
be  feparated  than  they  would  have  been,  if  they  had 
lain  in  one  diredlion.  E»oth  thefe  cavities  receiv- 
ing the  fame  quantities  of  blood  in  the  fame  times, 
and  always  adling  together,  muff  he  equal  in  fize, 
if  they  equally  difeharge  what  they  contain  at  every 
fyftole,  as  I doubt  not  but  they  do ; neverthelefs 
the  left  appears  lefs  than  the  right,  it  being  found 
empty  in  dead  bodies,  and  the  right  ufually  full  of 
blood ; which  made  the  ancients  think  the  veins 
and  the  right  ventricle  only  were  for  the  blood  to 
move  in,  and  that  the  left  and  the  arteries  contain-^ 
ed  only  animal  fpirits.  The  left  ventricle  is  much 
the  thickefl;  and  ftrongeft,  its  office  being  to  drive 
the  blood  through  the  whole  body,  while  the  right 
propels  it  through  the  lungs  only.  Over  the  en- 
trance of  the  auricles  in  each  ventricle,  are  placed 
valves  to  hinder  the  return  of  blood  while  the  heart 
contradts.  Thofe  in  the  right  ventricle  are  named 
tricufpides,  thofe  in  the  left  mitrales.  One  of  thefe 
iafl:  feems  to  do  further  fervice,  by  covering  the 

mouth 


HEART. 


I So 

mouth  of  the  aorta  while  the  ventricle  fills  ; which 
fuffering  none  of  the  blood  to  pafs  out  of  this  ven- 
tricle into  the  aorta  before  the  ventricle  ad;s,  it  will 
be  able  to  give  greater  force  to  the  blood  than  it 
otherwife  might  have  done ; becaufe  a greater  quan- 
tity of  blood  more  fully  diftending  the  ventricle, 
and  making  the  greater  refiftance,  it  will  be  capa- 
ble of  receiving  the  greater  impreffed  force  from 
the  ventricle  ; and  if  the  blood  is  no  way  hindered 
in  the  right  ventricle  from  getting  into  the  pulmo- 
nary artery,  while  the  ventricle  dilates,  as  it  is  in  the 
left,  the  left  then  may  be  fomewhat  bigger  than 
the  right,  if  they  both  empty  themfelves  alike  in 
every  fyftole.  Though  the  auricles  of  the  heart 
are  equal  to  each  other,  and  the  two  ventricles  alfo 
equal  or  nearly  equal,  yet  the  auricles  are  not  fo 
large  as  the  ventricles  ; for  the  ventricles  contain 
not  only  all  the  blood  which  flowed  from  the  veins 
into  the  auricles,  during  the  contraction  of  the  heart, 
but  alfo  that  which  flows  (which  will  be  diredly 
into  the  heart)  while  the  auricles  contrad;,  and  the 
ventricles  dilate;  which  leads  us  to  the  exact  knowl- 
edge of  the  ufe  of  the  auricles.  If  the  fyflole  and 
diaftole  of  tfie  heart  are  performed  in  equal  times, 
then  the  auricles  muft  be  half  the  fize  of  the  ven- 
tricles ; or  whatever  proportion  the  fpace  of  time 
of  the  fyftole  of  the  heart  bears  to  the  fpace  in 
which  the  fyftole  and  diaftole  are  both  performed, 
that  proportion  will  the  cavities  of  the  auricles 
b^r  to  the  cavities  of  the  ventricles.  The  inner 

fibres 


HEART. 


fibres  of  each  ventricle  are  difpofed  into  fmall  cords, 
which  are  called  columnse from  fome  of  thefe 
ftand  fmall  portions  of  flefh  called  papillse ; thefe 
papillse  are  tied  to  the  valves  by  flender  fibres, 
whereby  they  keep  the  valves  from  being  prefled 
into  the  auricles  by  the  adtion  of  the  blood  againft 
them  in  the  fyftole  of  the  heart : and  when  that 
is  over,  the  blood  flowing  in  between  them  opens 
them,  as  the  preffure  of  blood  on  the  other  fide 
Ihuts  them  in  the  fyftole.  For  the  courfe  of  the 
blood  through  this  part,  vid.  chap.  Of  the  courie 
of  the  aliment  and  fluids.  In  the  beginning  of 
each  artery  from  the  heart  are  placed  three  valves, 
which  look  forward,  and  clofe  together  to  hinder 
a regrefs  of  blood  into  the  ventricles.  Thofe  in 
the  pulmonary  artery  are  named  figmoidales,  thofe 
in  the  aorta,  femilunares.  For  the  canalis  arteri- 
ofus,  vid.  chap.  Of  the  fcetus. 

In  a boy  I found  a great  quantity  of  pus  in  the 
pericardium,  and  the  bafis  of  the  heart  ulcerated. 
In  perfons  that  have  died  of  a dropfy,  I have  ufu- 
ally  obferved  the  heart  large,  its  fibres  lax,  and  tha 
velTels  about  it  immoderately  diftended,  and  poly- 
pufes  fometimes  in  both  auricles  and  ventricles, 
and  in  the  large  veins  ; but  more  frequently  in 
the  right  auricle  and  ventricle.  Mr.  Pile  has 
prepared  a heart  thus  difeafed,  whofe  circumfer- 
ence from  the  vertex  round  the  bafe  of  the  auri- 
cles meafures  twenty-four  inches  and  a quarter, 
and  round  the  bafe  of  the  ventricles  feventegn 

inches 


H E A t. 


182 

inches  and  a half.  I difleded  a man  that  died 
tabid,  in  whom  the  pericardium  univerfally  ad- 
hered to  the  heart,  and  a portion  of  the  mufcular 
part  of  the  heart  was  olTified  as  large  as  a fix- 
pence.  The  beginning  of  the  aorta  is  frequently 
feen  offified,  efpecially  in  aged  perfons.  In  a wom-^ 
an  that  died  of  a dropfy,  I found  the  valves  of  the 
aorta  qiiite  covered  with  ehalk-ftones,  which  not 
fuffering  the  valves  to  do  their  office,  the  left 
ventricle  of  the  heart  was  conftantly  overcharged 
with  blood,  and  diftended  to  above  twice  its  nat- 
ural bignefs,  which,  I imagine,  deftroyed  the  econ-  ! 
omy  of  the  body,  and  occafioned  the  dropfy.  | 

Upon  opening  the  body  of  a perfon,  who  died  | 
with  exceffive  palpitations  of  the  heart  and  un-  j 
even  pulfe,  which  began  after  Very  hard  drinking, 
in  extreme  hot  weather,  fome  years  before,  I 
found  about  ten  inches  of  the  aorta  neareft  the^'^ 

heart  diftended  three  times  its  natural  diameter  j 

* ^ ' 
and  in  a man  one  hundred  and  three  years  old,  I '^ 

found  the  fame  part  of  the  aorta  extended  twice  ^ 

its  natural  capacity,  without  any  fymptom  of  fuch  ft 

a diforder  when  living. 


CHAP. 


ARTERIES  ANfi  VEINS.  183 

CHAR  VIII. 

Of  the  Arteries  and  Veins. 

From  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart  arifes  the 
pulmonary  artery,  which  foon  divides  into  two 
branches,  one  to  each  lobe  of  the  lungs  ; then 
they  fubdivide  into  fmaller  and  fmaller  branches, 
until  they  are  diftributed  through  every  part  of  the 
lungs.  From  the  extreme  branches  of  the  pulmo- 
nary artery  arife  the  fmall  branches  of  the  pulmo- 
nary veins  ; which,  as  they  approach  the  left  auri- 
cle of  the  heart,  unite  in  fuch  a manner  as  the  pul- 
monary artery  divides  going  from  the  heart,  only 
that  the  veins  enter  the  mufcular  appendix  of  the 
left  auricle  in  feveral  branches,  and  the  blood  being 
brought  back  from  the  lungs  by  thefe  velfels  to  the 
left  auricle  and  ventricle  of  the  heart,  it  is  from  the 
left  ventricle  of  the  heart  thrown  into  the  aorta. 
f Aorta,  or  great  artery,  arifes  from  the  left 
ventricle  of  the  heart,  and  deals  out  branches  to  ev- 
ery part  of  the  body.  The  firft  part  of  this  veifel 
is  called  aorta  afeendens  ; it  paffes  over  the  left 
pulmonary  artery,  and  veins,  and  branch  of  the  af- 
pera  arteria,  and  being  reflected  under  the  left  lobe 
of  the  lungs,  it  commences  aorta  defeendens ; which 
name  it  keeps  through  the  thorax  and  abdomen, 
where  it  paffes  on  the  left  fide  of  the  fpine,  till  fts 

divifion  ® 


i84  arteries  and  VEINS. 

divifion  into  iliac  arteries  between  the  third  and 
fourth  vertebrsG  of  the  loins.; 

From  under  two  of  the  fcmilunar  valves  of  the 
aorta,  which  is  ere  it  leaves  the  heart,  arife  two 
branches  (fometimes  but  one)  which  are  beftowed 
upon  the  heart,  and  are  called  coronariae  cordis* 
From  the  curved  part  of  the  aorta,  which  is  about 
two  or  three  inches  above  the  heart,  arife  the  fub- 
clavian  and  carotid  art.eries  ; the  right  fubclavian 
and  carotid  in  one  trunk,  but  the  left  fingle.  By 
fome  authors  thefe  velTels  have  been  defcrihed  in 
a different  manner ; but  I believe  their  defcrip- 
tions  were,  for  want  of  human  bodies,  taken  from 
brutes  ; for  I have  never  yet  feen  any  variety  in 
thefe  veffels  in  human  bodies,  though  I have  m 
the  veins  nearer  the  heart : and  indeed  there  feems 
to  me  to  be  a niechanical  reafon  for  their  going  off 
in  the  manner  here  defcribed,  in  human  bodies  j 
for  the  right  fubclavian  and  carotid  arteries  necef- 
farily  going  off  from  the  aorta  at  a much  larger  an- 
gle than  the  left,  the  blood  would  move  more  free- 
ly into  the  left  than  the  right,  if  the  right  did  not 
go  off  in  one  trunk,  M^hich  gives  lefs  fridtion  to  the 
blood  than  two  branches  equal  in  capacity  to  that 
one ; fo  that  the  advantage  the  left  have  by  going 
off  from  the  aorta  at  much  acuter  angles  than  the 
right,  is  made  up  to  the  right  by  their  going  off  at 
firfl  in  but  one  branch. 

' ?^The  carotid  arteries  run  on  both  fides  the  la- 
rynx to  the  fixth  foramina  of  the.fcull,  through 

which 


APvTERIES  AND  VEINS. 


185 

which  they  enter  to  the  brain  ; but  as  they  pafs 
through  the  neck,  they  detach  branches  to  every 
part  about  them,  which  branches  are  called  by  the 
names  of  the  parts  they  are  bellowed  upon ; as, 
larynges,  thyroides,  pharynges,  linguales,  tem- 
porales,  cccipitales,  faciales,  &c.  but  juft  before  they 
enter  the  fixth  foramina  of  the  fcull,  they  each 
fend  a fmall  branch  through  the  fifth  foramina  to 
that  part  of  the  dura  mater  which  contains  the 
cerebrum.  It  is  thefe  arteries  ' Which  make 
thofe  imprefiions  which  are  conftantly  obferved  on 
the  infide  of  the  ofta  bregmatis  : thefe  branches, 
Mr.  Monro  obfenms,  oftener  arife  from  the  tempo- 
ral arteries.  The  internakcarotids  fend  two  branches 
to  the  back  part  of  the  nofe,  and  feverai  branches 
through  the  firft  and  fecond  foramina  of  the  fcull 
to  the  face  and  parts  contained  within  the  orbits  of 
the  eyes,  and  then  piercing  the  dura  mater,  they 
each  divide  into  two  branches,  one  of  which  they 
fend  under  the  falx  of  the  dura  mater,  between  the 
two  hemifpheres  of  the  brain,  and  the  other  be- 
tween the  anterior  and  pofterior  lobes.  Thefe 
branches  take  a great  m.any  turns,  and  divide  into 
veiy  fmall  branches  in  the  pia  mater  before  they  en- 
ter the  brain,  as  if  the  pulfe  of  larger  arteries  would 
make  too  Auolent  an  im^prelfion  on  fo  tender  and 
delicate  a part.  And  perhaps  it  may  be  from  an 
increafe  of  the  impulfe  of  the  arteries  in  the  brain, 
which  ftrong  liquors  produce,  that  the  nerves  are 
fo  much  interrupted  in  their  ufes  throughout  th^ 
, N whole 


i86.  ARTERIES  AND  VEINS. 


whole  bidy,  when  a man  is  intoxicated  wi^h  drink- 
ing ; and  may  it  not  alfo  be  from  a like  caufe  that 
men  are  delirious  in  fevers  ? Befides  thefe  two  ar- 
teries, viz.  the  carotids,  the  brain  has  two  more, 
called  cervicales,  which  arife  from  the  fubclavian 
arteries,  and  afcendf  to  the'  head  through  the  fora- 
mina, in  the  tranfverfe  procefies  of  the  cervical 
vertebras,  and  into  the  fcull  through  the  tenth  or 
great  foramen*  ; Thefe  two  arteries  uniting  foor^ 
after  their  entrance,  they  give  off  branches  to  the 
cerebellum,  and,  then  pafTmg  forward,  divide  and 
communicate  with  the  carotids  ; and  the  carotid  ar- 
teries communicating  with  each  other,  there  is  an 
entire  communication  between  them  all  ; and  thefe 
communicant  branches  are  fo  large  that  every  one 
of  thefe  four  great  veflels,  witli^ll  their  branches, 
may  be  eafily  filled  with  wax  through  any  one  of 
them. 

The  fubclavian  arteries  are  each  continued  to 
the  cubit  in  oae  trunk,  which  is  called  axillaris  as 
it  pafles  the  arm-pits,  and  humeralis  as  it  paffes  by 
the  infide  of  the  os  humeri,  between  the  mufcles, 
that  bend  and  extend  the  cubit.  Trom  the  fub- 
clavians  wfithin  the  breall  arife  the  arteriae  mamma- 
rise,  which  run  on  the  infide  of  the  fternum,  and 
lower  than  the  cartilago  enfiformis.  Soon  after  the 
arteria  humeralis  has  pafled  the  joint  of  th^<;ubit, 
it  divides  into  two  branches,  called  cubitalis  fuperi- 
or,  and  cubitalis  inferior ; which  latter  foon  fends  off 
# branch,  called  cubitalis  media,  which  is  beftowed 

upon 


ARTERIES  AND  VEINS. 

upon  the  nuifcles  feated  about  the  cu^it.  The 
cubitalis  fuperior  pafTes.  near  the  radius,  and  round 
the  root  of  the  thumb,  and  gives  one  branch  to 
the  back  of  the  hand,  and  two  to  the  thumb  ; one 
to  the  firft  finger  a?hd  a branch  to  communicate 
with  the  cubitalis  inferior.  The  cubitalis  inferior 
palTes  near  the  ulna  to  the  palm  of  the  hand,  where 
it  takes  a turn,  and  fends  one  branch  to  the  cutfide 
of  the  little  finger,  another  between  that  and  the 
next  finger,  dividing  to  both,  another  in  the  fame 
manner  to  the  two  middle  fingers,  and  another  to 
the  two  fore  fingers.  Thefe  branches  which  are 
beftowed  on  the  fingers  run  one  on  each  fide  of 
each  finger  internally  to  the  top,  where  they  have 
finall  communica^ons,  and  very  often  there  is  a 
branch  of  communication  between  the  humeral 
and  inferior  cubital  arteries.  This  communicant 
branch  is  fometimes  very  large,  and  liable  to  be 
pricked  by  carelefs  or.  injudicious  blood-letters,  in 
bleeding  in  the  bafilic  vein,  imniediately  under 
which,  as  far  as  I have  been  able  to  obferve,  this 
branch  always  lies.  Mr.  Mon^o  has  found  the 
fubclavian  artery  divided,  in  one  fiibjedt,  into  two, 
the  exterior  of  which  formed  the  cubitalis  fuperi- 
or, and  the  inner  arteiy,  the  cubitalis  Inferior  ; from 
which  fiiruccure  he  accounts  for  the  fuccefs  in  the 
operatTon  of  the  aneurlfm  fometimes  performed 
above  the  cubit.  Wl  '=‘n.  the  operation  for  an 
aneurlfm  is  made  upon  thil  com.municant  branch, 
it  is  found  neceffary  to  tie  it  on  both  fides  of  the^ 
N 2 orifice, 


ARTERIES  and  VEINS.  ‘ 

orliice,  becaufe  the  blood  is  liable  to  flow  freelj  into 
it  either  way. 

^•'iom  the  defeending  aorta  on  each  fide  is  fent 
a branch  under  every  rib,  called  intercoidalis,  and 
about  the  fourth  vertebra  of  the  back  it  fends  olf 
two  branches  to  the  lungs,  called  bronchiales,vrhich 
are  lometimes  both  given  off  from  the  aorta,  fome- 
' times  one  of  them. from  the  intercoflal  of  the  fourth 
lib  on  the  right  fide  ; and  as  the  aorta  paffes  under 
the  diaphragm,  it  fends  two  branches  into  the  dia- 
phragm, called  arterise  phrenicas,  which  fome- 
tinies  rife  in  one  trunk  from  the  aorta,  and  forae- 
times  from  the  cceliaca  ; but  oftener  the  right  from 
the  aorta,  and  the  left  from  the  cpeliaca.  Immedi- 
ately below  the  diaphragm  arifes  the  coeliac  artery 
from  the  aorta  ; it  fcon  divides  l^^to  feveral  branch- 
es, wEich  are  bellowed  upon  the  liver,  pancreas, 
fpleen,  ftomach,  omentum,  and  duodenum.  Thefe 
branches  are  named  from  the  parts  they  are  bellow- 
ed cn,  except  two  that  are  bellowed  upon  the  llom- 
ach,  which  are  called  ccronaria  fuperior  and  infe- 
rior, and  the  branch  belle v/ed  upon  the  duodenum, 
which  is  named  intellinalis.  At  a very  fmall  dif- 
tance  below  the  arteria  codiaca  from  the  aorta  arifes 
the  raefenterica  fuperior,  whom  branches  are  beftew- 
ed  upon  all  the  intelllnum  jejunum  and  ilium, part  of 
the  colon,  and  foraetimes  one  branch  upon  the  liver. 
A little  lower  than  the  fuperior  mefenteric  artery 
arife  the  emulgents,  whioh  are  the  arteries  of  the  kid- 
4paeys.  And  a little  lower  than  the  emulgents,  for- 
ward 


ARTERIES  AND  VEINS.  189 

ward  from  the  aorta,  arife  the  arterise  fpermaticaz  j 
for  which,  vid.  chap.  Of  the  parts  of  generation 
in  men.  Lower  laterally  the  aorta  fends  branches 
to  the  loins,  called  lum^bales  ; and  one  forward,  to 
the  lower  part  of  the  colon  and  the  reftum,  called 
mefenterica  inferior.  Between  the  arteria  cceli- 
aca,  mefenterica  faperior  and  inferior,  and  the 
branches  of  each  near  the  guts,  there  are  large 
communicant  branches  to  convey  the  blood  from 
one  to  another,  v^7•hen  they  are  either  comprelfed 
by  excrements,  or  from  any  ether  caufe. 

As  foon  as  the  aorta  divides  upon  the  loins,  it 
fends  off  an  artery  into  the  pelvis  upon  the  os  fa- 
crum,  called  arteria  facra,  and  the  branches  the 
aorta  divides  into  are  called  ilia.cae,  w'hich  in  about 
two  inches  fpace  divide  into  external  and  internal. 
The  iliacae  internac  firft  fend  off  the  umbilical  ar- 
teries, which  are  dried  up  in  adult  bodies,  except  at 
their  beginnings,  which  are  kept  open  for  the  col- 
lateral branches  on  each  fide,  one  to  the  bladder, 
and  one  to  the  penis  in  men,  and  in  women  the 
uterus  : the  reft  of  thefe  branches  are  beftowed  up- 
on the  buttocks  and  upper  parts  of  the  thighs. 
The  iliacse  externse  run  over  the  ofla  pubis  into 
the  thighs  ; and  as  they  pafs  out  of  the  abdomen 
they  fend  off  branches,  called  epigaftricse  to  the 
fore  part  of  the  integuments  of  the  abdomen  un- 
der the  reefti  mufcles.  And  the  epigaftric  arteries 
fend  each  a branch  into  the  pelvis,  and  througli 
the  foramina  of  the  offa  innorainata  to  the  muf^s 


thereabouts. 


190  ARTERIES  and  VEINS. 

thereabouts.  As  foon  as  the  iliac  artery  is  paffed 
out  of  the  abdomen  into  the  groin  it  is  called  in- 
guinalis,  and  in  the  thigh  cruralis,  where  it  fends 
a large  branch  to  the  back  part  of  the  thigh ; but 
the  great  trunk  is  continued  internally  between 
the  flexors  and  cxtenfors  of  the  thigh,  and  pafling 
through  the  infertion  of  the  triceps  mufcle  into  the 
ham,  it  is  there  called  poplitea  ; then  below  the 
joint  it  divides  into  two  branches,  one  of  yvhich  is 
called  tibialis  antica ; it  pafles  between  the  tibia 
and  fibula  to  the  fore  part  oi  the  leg,  and  is  be- 
flowed  upon  the  great  toe,  and  one  branch  to  the 
next  toe  to  the  great  one,  and  another  between 
thefe  toes,  to  communicate  Vs^ith  the  tibialis  pofti- 
ca ; which  artery,  foon  after  it  is  divided  from  the 
antica,  fends  oif  the  tibialis  media,  which  is  be- 
flowed  upon  the  mufcles  of  the  leg  j the  tibialis 
poflica  goes  to  the  bottom  of  the  foot  and  all  the 
ieffer  toes.  The  tibialis  antica  is  difpofed  like  the 
cubitalis  fuperior  ; the  poflica  like  the  cubitalis  in- 
ferior ; and  the  medise  in  each  have  alfo  like  ufes,^ 
Thefe  arteries  which  I have  defcribed,  are  uniform 
in  mofl  bodies,  but  the  lelTer  branches  are  diftrib- 
uted  like  the  branches  of  trees,  in  fo  different  a 
n^anner  in  one  body  from  arl'other,  that  it  is  highly 
probable  no  two  bodies  are  exadlly  alike,  nor  the 
two  fides  in  any  one  body. 

I have  once  feen  a rupture  of  matter,  and  once 
of  blood  and  matter,  which  flowed  out  of  the  ab- 
ddSnen  into  the  fore  part  of  the  thigh,  through  the 

fame 


ARTERIES  AND  VEINS. 


191 


L 


fame  paffage  at  which  the  iliac  artery  goes  out  of 
the  abdomen. 

The  veins  arife  from  the  extremities  of  the  ar- 
teries, and  make  up  trunks  which  accompany  the 
arteries  in  almoft  every  part  of  the  body,  and  have 
the  fame  names  in  the  feveral  places  which  the  ar- 
teries have,  which  they  accompany.  The  veins  of 
the  brain  unload  themfelves  into  the  fmufes  (vid. 
chap.  Of  the  dura  and  pia  mater)  and  the  fmufes 
into  the.  internal  jugulars  and  cervicals  ; and  the 
internal  jugulars  and  cervicals  into  the  fubclavians, 
which  joining,  make  the  cava  defcendens.  The 
internal  jugulars  are  feated  by  the  carotid  arteries, 
and  receive  the  blood  from  all  the  parts  which  the 
carotids  ferve,  except  the  hairy  fcalp  and  part  of 
the  neck,  whofe  veins  enter  into  the  external  ju- 
gulars, which  run  immediately  under  the  mufculus 
quadratus  gense,  often  two  on  each  hde.  The  cer- 
vical veins  defcend  two  through  the  foramina  in  the 
tranfverfe  procefles  of  the  cervical  vertebrrn,  and  two 
through  the  great  foramen  of  the  fpine,  and  one  on 
each  fide  the  fpinal  marrow  ; thefe  join  at  the  low- 
eft  vertebra  of  the  neck,  and  then  empty  into  the 
fubclavians,  and  at  the  interftices  of  all  the  vertebrae 
communicate  with  one  another^ 

The  veins  of  the  limbs  are  more  than  double 
the  number  of  the  arteries,  there  being  one  on  each 
fide  each  artery,  even  to  the  fmalleft  branches  that 
we  can  trace,  befides  the  veins  which  lie  immedi- 
ately under  the  fkin.  /Thofe  which  accompany  the 

— arteries, 


192  ARTERIES  AND  VEINS. 

arteries,  have  the  fame  names  with  the  arteries ; thofe 
which  run  immediately  under  the  ficin  on  the  back 
of  the  hand,  hav£  no  proper  names  ; they  run  from 
thence  to  the  bend  of  the  elbow,  where  the  upper- 
moft  is  called  cephalica,  the  next  mediana,  the  next 
bafilica.  Thefe  all  communicate  near  the  joint  of 
the  elbow,  and  then  fend,  one  branch  which  is 
more  diredlly  from  the  cephalica,  and  bears  that 
name  until  it  enters  the  fubclavian  vein  ; it  palfes 
immediately  under  the  fkin,  in  moft  bodies,  be- 
tween the  fiexors  and  extenfors  of  the  cubit,  on  the 
upper  fide  of  the  arn^The  other  branches  joining, 
and  receiving  thofe  which  accompany  the  arteries 
of  the  cubit,  they  pafs  with  them  by  the  artery 
of  the  arm  into  the  fubclavian  vein.  The  external 
veins  have  frequent  communications  with  the  in- 
ternal, and  are  always  fulled;  wdien  we  ufe  the 
moil  exercife  ; becaufe  the  blood  being  expanded 
by  the  heat  which  exercife  produces,  it  requires  the 
veffels  to  be  diftended  ; and  the  inner  velfels  being 
compreiTed  by  the  actions  of  the  mufcles,  they 
cannot  dilate  enough  ; but  thefe  veffels  being  feat- 
ed  on  the  outlides  of  the  mufcles,  are  capable  of 
being  much  dilated  ; and  this  feems  to  me  to  be  the 
chief  ufe  of  thefe  external  veffels.  The  cephalic 
vein,  as  it  runs  up  the  arm,  is  very  vifible  in  mod; 
men,  but  in  children  is  rarely  to  be  feen  ; there- 
fore great  care  fliould  be  taken  not  to  wound  it  in 
the  cutting  of  iffues  in  children’s  arms  ; and  I know 
no  way  to  be  hire  of  avoiding  it,  but  by  cutting  the 

iffue 


ARTERIES  AND  VEINS.  193 

iffae  more  externally  than  is  ufual  in  men,  which 
may  be  done  vrithout  any  inconvenience. 

^ In  the  thorax,  befides  the  two  cavs,  there  is  a 
vein  called  azygos,  or  vena  fine  pari  ; it  is  made  up 
of  the  intercoftal,  phrenic,  and  bronchial  veins, 
and  enters  the  defcending  cava  near  the  auricle, 
as  if  its  ufe  was  to  divert  the  defcending  blood 
from  falling  too  diredtly  upon  the  blood  in  the 
afcending  cava,  and  dired:  the  blood  of  the  de- 
fending cava  into  the  auricle^ 

In  the  abdomen  (befides  the  cava  afeendens  and 
the  veins  which  are  named  like  the  arteries,  viz. 
the  emulgents  from  the  kidneys,  the  lumbal  and 
fpermatic  veins,  the  facra,  iliac,  and  hypogaftric 
veins)  there  is  one  large  one  called  vena  portae, 
whofe  branches  arife  from  all  the  branches  of  the 
coeliac  and  two  mefenteric  arteries,  except  thofe 
branches  of  the  coeliac  and  fuperior  mefenteric, 
which  are  bellowed  on  the  liver,  and  uniting  in 
one  trunk  enters  the  liver,  and  is  there  again  dif- 
tributed  like  an  artery,  and  has  its  blood  colleded 
and  brought  into  the  cava  by  the  branches  of  the 
cava  in  the  liver  ; this  vein  being  made  ufe  of  in- 
ftead  of  an  artery  to  carry  blood  to  the  liver,  for 
the  feparation  of  bile.  It  moves  here  about  eight 
time§  flower  than  in  the  arteries  hereabouts ; and 
this  flow  circulation  being  fjppofed  necelfary,  I 
think,  there  feems  no  other  way  fo  fit  to  procure 
• it  ; for  if  an  artery  had  been  employed  for  this  ufe, 
and  been  thus  much  dilated  in  fo  Ihort  a paflage, 


194  ARTERIES  and  VEINS. 

the  blood  would  not  have  moved  fo  uniformly  in 
it,  but  fafter  through  its  axis  than  near  its  fides  ; 
and  befides,  it  is  very  probable  that  the  blood  in 
this  vein,  having  been  firft  employed  in  nourifh- 
ing  feveral  parts,  and  having  through  a long  fpace 
moved  flowly,  may  be  made  thereby  fitter  for  the 
feparation  of  bile,  than  blood  carried  by  an  artery 
dilated  to  procure  a circulation  of  the  fame  velocity 
with  that  in  this  vein. 

In  the  leg  the  veins  accompany  the  arteries  in 
the  fame  manner  as  in  the  arm,  the  external  veins 
cf  the  foot  being  on  the  upper  fide,  and  from  them 
is  derived  one  called  faphena,  which  is  continued 
on  the  infide  of  the  limb  its  whole  length,  and 
has  feveral  names  given  it  from  the  feveral  places 
through  which  it  pafTes. 

The  arteries  have  three  coats  ; a middle  muf- 
cular,  and  an  external  and  internal  membranous. 
The  veins  are  faid  to  have  the  fame  ; the  internal 
coat  of  an  artery  may  be  pretty  eafily  feparated,  but 
not  the  external ; and  though  the  veins  have  muf- 
cular  fibres,  yet  I could  never  feparate  any  one  dif- 
tindlly  into  three  coats  ; and  in  the  infide  'of  the 
veins  there  are  many  valves,  efpecially  in  the  low- 
er limbs,  to  hinder  any  reflux  of  the  venal  blood, 
which  otherwife  would  have  happened  from  the 
frequent  actions  of  the  mufcles  on  the  outfides  cf 
the  veins  ; and  130th  the  arteries  and  veins,  as  they 
run  in  the  infide  of  the  limb,  or  as  they  are  dif- 
perfed  in  parts  that  fuffer  great  extenfions,  as  the 

ftomach. 


ARTERIES  AND  VEINS.  195 

ftomach,  guts,  and  uterus,  they  are  curved  fa 
much  as  that  when  thefe  parts  come  to  be  diftend- 
ed,  they  may  comply  with  thofe  dihenficns  by  only 
being  ftraitened,  and  fo  preferved  from  being 
ftretched,  which  would  lelfen  their  diameters.  The 
fmall  arteries  near  the  heart  go  off  from  the  large 
trunks  at  obtufe  angles,  farther  at  lefs  obtufe  angles, 
then  at  right  angles,  farther  ftiil  at  acute  angles, 
and  near  the  extremities  at  very  acute  angles,  be- 
caufe  the  blood  in  the  veffels  far  from  the  heart 
moving  with  lefs  velocity  than  the  blood  in  the 
veifels  near  the  heart,  the  blood  in  the  collateral 
branches  more  remote  from  the  heart  wants  the 
advantage  of  a diredter  ccurfe  ; and  becaufe  a very 
large  branch  arifing  out  of  another,  might  Vvreaken 
too  much  the  fides  of  the  vefiel  it  would  arife  from, 
that  inconvenience  is  prevented  by  increafing  the 
number,  and  fo  lelfening  the  fize  of  the  collateral 
branches,  where  otherwife  one  large  branch  would 
have  ferved  better ; as  in  the  going  off  of  the  fub- 
clavian  and  carotid  arteries,  which  might  have  gone 
off  for  fome  fpace  in  one  trunk  ; but  this  mechan- 
ifm  is  more  evident  in  the  going  off  of  the  arteria 
codiaca  and  mefenterica  fuperior.  And  the  fmall 
arteries  always  divide  fo  as  that  the  leffer  branch 
may  lie  lead;  in  the  direction  of  the  blood  flowing 
into  them,  which  makes  the  blood  flow  mofl;  freely 
;nto  that  branch  that  hath  farthefl;  to  carry  it ; and 
:he  imaller  branches  arife  more  or  lefs  obliquely 
:rcm.  the  fides  of  other  arteries,  according  to  the 

proportion 


196  ARTERIES  AND  VEINS. 

proportion  they  bear  to  the  arteries  they  arlfe  from,  ^ 
becaufe  an  artery  comparatively  large  arifmg  ob- 
liquely from  the  fide  of  another,  would  make  an 
orifice  in  that  it  arifes  from  too  large,  and  weaken 
it.  And  both  thefe  ends  are  at  once  brought  about, 
by  making  the  arteries,  that  give  off  the  branches, 
bend  more  or  lefs  toward  the  branches  they  give 
off,  according  to  the  comparative  magnitude  of  the 
branches  given  off, 

Bor  ELL  I has  computed  the  force  which  the 
heart  exerts  at  every  fyftole,  to  be  equal  to  three 
thoufand  pounds  weight,  and  the  force  which  all 
the  arteries  exert  at  every  fyftole,  to  be  equal  to  ' 
fixteen  thoufand  pounds  weight,  and  that  they  to-  ; 
gether  overcome  a force  equal  to  an  hundred  and 
thirty-fix  thoufand  pounds  weight ; and  Dr.  Keil 
has  computed  that  the  heart  in  every  fyftole  exerts 
a force  not  exceeding  eight  ounces.  The  firft  com- 
putation was  made  by  comparing  the  heart  with 
other  mufcles,whofe  power  to  fuftain  a weight  could 
be  beft  determined  ; and  the  latter  was  made  from 
the  velocity  of  the  blood  moving  in  an  artery : 
therefore  if  we  confider  that  Borelli’s  way  of 
computing  led  him  to  find  out  the  abfolute  force  of 
the  heart,  and  Dr.  Keil’s  the  force  which  the  heart 
ufually  exerts,  perhaps  thefe  very  different  compu- 
tations may  be  accounted  for ; for  if  the  force  of 
the  heart,  which  is  conftantly  exerted,  fhould,  com- 
pared with  any  other  mufcle,  be  but  in  a reciprocal 
proportion  to  the  frequency  of  their  actions,  and 

the 


ARTERIES  AND  VEINS. 


197 

the  importance  of  their  ufes  ; may  not  the  heart 
very  fitly  have  a force  vaftly  greater  than  ufiially  it 
exerts,  becaufe  it  is  always  in  aftion,  and  muft  be 
able  to  exert  a certain  force  in  the  lowed  flate  of 
health  ? What  force  the  heart  ever  exerts  in  a grown 
man,  I cannot  fay ; but  it  muft  be  lefs  in  each  ven- 
tricle than  is  fufficient  to  burft  the  valves,  which 
hinder  the  blood  from  returning  into  the  auricles 
out  of  the  ventricles,  or  than  is  fufticient  to  break 
thofe  threads  by  which  thefe  valves  are  tied  to  the 
i papillte.  In  a dog,  I found  the  force  which  the 
il  heart  w'ould  exert,  would  not  raife  to  one  foot  per- 
I j pendicular  height  a column  of  blood  through  the 
I ^ aorta  afcendens.  And  when  I injedt  the  arteries  of  a 
I:  child,  I find  a force  exceeding  little  will  throw  wa- 

!,!  ter  through  all  the  veflels,  with  a velocity  equal  to 
that  with  which  the  blood  moves  in  thofe  veflels 
when  living.  And  if  the  heart,  like  other  mufcles, 
i can  perform  the  firft  part  of  its  contraction  with 
' ' mmft  eafe,  are  not  the  quick  aCtions  of  the  heart  in. 
i hectic  fevers  owing  to  its  not  being  able  to  empty 
the  ventricles  every  fyftole,  which,  I think,  wfill 
oblige  it  to  aCt,  ceteris  paribus,  fo  much  the  often- 
er  ? For  the  following  ingenious  attempt  to  ac- 
count for  the  fyftole  and  diaftole  of  the  heart,  and 
the  reciprocal  adions  of  the  auricles  and  ventricles, 
I am  obliged  to  Mr.  Monro. 

“ Poftulata,  that  the  aCcion  of  the  mufcles  de- 
“ pends  on  the  influx  of  blood  and  liquidum  ner- 
I “vofum  into  the  mufcular  fibres,  and  therefore, 

; - “ whenever 


198  ARTERIES  AND  VEINS. 


“ whenever  the  mufcles  are  deprived  of  either  or 
“ both  thefe  fluids,  their  adlion  ceafes  ; this  a great 
many  authors  have  fufly  proved  by  tying  and 
“ cutting  the  nerves  and  arteries  that  ierve  any 
“ mufcle.  That  all  mufcles  are  in  a conftant  ftate 
“ of  contraction  as  long  as  the  blood  and  liquidum 
“ nervofum  are  freely  fupplied  to  them,  which 
“ feems  evident  from  the  fphinCler  ani  and  veficse, 
“ and  from  the  continued  contraction  of  fuch  muf- 
“ cles,  whofe  antagonifts  are  cut  afunder,  or  pa- 
“ ralytic.  That  the  nerves  of  the  heart  run  to  it 
“ between  the  auricles  and  arteries,  and  that  the 
“ arterise  coronariss  rife  from  the  aorta  behind  the 
“ vaivulsc  femilunares,  both  which  are  evident  from 
“ diifeCtions.  If  then  both  auricles  and  ventricles 
“ are  ready,  upon  the  firft  communication  of  mo- 
“ tion,  to  contract  at  the  fame  time,  the  ventricles, 
“ as  Dr.  Keil  well  obferves,  being  ftronger,  will 
“ firfl:  contract,  and  hinder  the  contraction  of  the 
“ auricles,  which  mull  be  in  the  mean  time  much 
dilated  by  the  influx  of  blood  from  the  veins, 
“ while  the  arteries  are  alfo  diftended  by  the  blood 
“ thrown  out  of  the  ventricles  ; therefore  the  car- 
“ diac  nerves  lying  between  the  two  will  be  com- 
“ prelTed,  and  the  courfe  of  the  liquids  in  them  ftop- 
“ ped  ; at  the  fame  time  the  blood  that  rufhes  out 
“ of  the  left  ventricle  into  the  aorta,  pufhes  the 
“ valves  of  that  artery  upon  the  orifices  of  the  ar- 
“ terise  coronariae,  fo  that  no  blood  can  enter  into 
“ the  fubftance  of  the  heart ; thus  both  caufes  of 

“ contraction 


ARTERIES  AND  VEINS. 


199 

**  contradion  failing,  this  mufcle  muft  become  pa- 
“ ralytic.  The  reiiflance  then  to  the  contrad:ion  of 
“ the  auricles  being  now  removed,  they  will  throw 
“ their  blood  into  the  ventricles ; and  the  impulfion 
“ of  blood  into  the  arteries  from  the  heart  nov/  alfo 
“ ceafmg,  the  two  great  arteries  will  be  conftrift- 
“ ed  ; the  nerves  are  therefore  now  again  free  from 
“ compreffion,  and  the  valves  of  the  aorta  being 
“ thruft  back  upon  the  mouth  of  the  ventricle,  the 
“ blood  enters  the  arterise  coronarise ; hnce  the  ven- 
“ tricles  are  again  fupplied  with  both  the  liquids 
on  which  their  contradHon  depends,  they  mull: 
“ again  adf.  And  thus  as  long  as  thefe  caufes  con- 
“ tinue,  their  effeds  mull  follow,  i.  e.  as  long  as 
“ the  creature  lives,  the  heart  muft  have  an  al- 
“ ternate  fyftole  and  diaftole,  and  the  auricles  and 
“ ventricles  have  reciprocal  adions.” 

If  the  arteries  contrad,  fuppofe,  a fourth  part 
of  the  fquares  of  their  diameters  at  every  fyftole,  and 
if  the  heart  does  not  throw  out  a quantity  at  every 
fyftole,  equal  to  the  fourth  part  of  the  folid  con- 
tents of  all  the  arteries  when  dilated,  it  is  evident 
the  heart  does  not  throw  the  blood  through  the 
whole  arterial  fyftem,  but  into  fo  much  of  the  ar- 
teries neareft  the  heart,  as  will  contain  four  times 
as  much  as  is  thrown  out  of  the  left  ventricle  at 
once  : and  then  this  portion  of  arteries  throws  the 
blood  forwards  and  dilates  the  arteries  that  lie  next, 
and  fo  on  : but  if  the  capacities  of  all  the  arteries 
taken  together  in  their  utmoft  dilatations,  exceed 

their 


their  capaciLks  in  their  utrnofi:  contractions,  j ufc  ib 
much  as  the  cjuantity  of  blood  amounts  to,  rdiicli 
is  thrown  out  of  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart  at 
every  fyftcle,  v/hich  1 believe  is  the  cafe,  tlien  every 
contraction  of  the  heart  propels  the  blood  through 
the  whole  arterial  fyfcem,  which  may  be  the  reafon 
why  the  largeil  animals,  casteris  paribus,  have  the 
flowefl  pulfes  and  lean  vigour  in  their  motions,  and 
perhaps  too  for  the  fame  reafon  require  a lefs  pro- 
portion of  food.  The  feCtions  of  all  the  remoter 
vellels  being  greater  than  a fedtion  of  the  aorta, 
the  blood  will  move  fo  mmch  flov/cr  in  the  lelfer 
velTels  than  in  the  greater,  as  the  fedtions  of  the 
leller  vefiels  taken  together  exceed  the  fedlion  of 
the  greater  velTel  or  veiTels,  The  ftrength  of  the 
coats  of  the  arteries,  if  the  blood  preffed  equally  ' 
againft  the  fides  of  them  all,  casteris  paribus,  ought  : 
to  be  one  to  another  as  their  circumferences,  be- 
caufe  fo  much  as  the  circumference  of  one  artery  : 
is  greater  than  another,  fo  much  greater  prelTure 
its  fides  muft  fuftain  ; but  the  arteries  nearefi;  the 
heart,  fuftaining  the  re-adtion  of  all  the  arterial 
blood,  they  ’muft  have  a ftrength  yet  greater  than 
in  that  proportion ; and  the  veffels,  both  arteries 
and  veins,  the  more  diftant  they  arc  from  the 
head,  the  greater  proportional  ftrength  their  coats 
muft  have,  becaufe  the  arterial  and  venal  blood 
communicating,  they  wull  prefs  upon  the  lower 
veffels,  with  a force  proportional  to  the  perpendic- 
ular altitude  of  blood  above,  which  will  be  that  of 

the 


201 


I 

ARTERIES  AND  VEINS. 

tEe  perpendicular  altitude  of  the  whole  body  ; for 
though  the  afcending  blood  of  the  arteries  may  be 
faid  not  to  prefs  upon  the  defcending,  becaufe  it 
moves  another  way,  neverthelefs,  it  being  thrown 
from  the  heart  into  one  common  veffel,  which  af- 
terwards divides,  the  blood  moving  both  ways  com- 
municates, and  that  force  which  is  neceffary  to 
overcome  the  natural  inclination  of  the  afcending 
blood  to  defcend,  will  be  imprefled  alfo  upon  the 
defcending  blood,  which  is  juft  the  fame  with  the 
weight  of  the  afcending  blood  ; and  the  veins  both 
from  above  and  below  communicating  at  the  right 
auricle,  the  preffure  in  them  will  alfo  be  as  the 
perpendicular  altitude  of  the  body.  So  that  the 
blood  in  all  the  veins  and  arteries  may  be  compared 
to  a fluid  in  a curved  tube,  in  which  that  part  in 
one  leg  exadlly  balances  that  in  the  other,  and  both 
prefling  moft  upon  thofe  parts  which  are  neareft 
the  centre  of  the  earth.  Accordingly  we  find  by 
experience,  that  humours  are  moft  apt  to  flow  to 
the  loweft  parts,  and  that  by  laying  thofe  parts  upon 
a level  with  the  whole  body,  this  inconvenience  is 
remedied  ; but  laying  a leg  only  on  a chair  does  it 
but  in  part,  juft  fo  much  as  the  perpendicular  alti- 
tude of  the  body  from  that  part  is  Ihortened.  There 
is  alfo  to  be  confidered  concerning  the  thicknefs 
of  the  coats  of  the  veifels,  that  the  blood  moving 
flower  in  the  fmall  vefieis  than  in  the  great,  the  mo- 
ment of  the  blood  againft  the  fides  of  a fmall  veifel 
vrill  be  as  much,  lefs  than  the  moment  of  the  blood 
O againft 


f 

202  ARTERIES  and  VEINS*. 

againft  equal  parts  of  a great  one,,  as  the  velocity  of 
the  blood  in  a fmall  veffel  is  lefs  than  that  in  a great 
one  ; and  therefore  their  coats  may  alfo  differ  from- 
the  former  proportion,  as  the  velocity  of  the  blood 
differs.  Moft  of  the  fmall  veffels  in  the  limbs  ly- 
ing againft  one  another  are  a mutual  fupport,  and 
therefore  lefs  liable  to  be  dilated  or  burft  than  ca- 
pillaries which  lie  in  the  thin  membranes  of  cavi- 
ties, fuch  as  in  the  nofe.  Elence  thefe,  I fuppofe, 
are  moll  fubjed:  to  hasmorrhages.  And  if  hssmor- 
rhages  of  blood  do  frequently  arife  from  obftruc- 
tions  in  the  minuteft  veffels,  does  it  not  appear  how 
opium  and  the  bark,  if  they  thin  the  blood  inwardly 
taken  (as  they  do  moft  powerfully  when  mixed 
with  it)  come  to  be  fo  often  effedual  remedies  in 
that  cafe  ? And  the  coats  of  the  leffer  veffels  being 
proportionably  weaker  than  the  great  ones,  accord- 
ing to  the  decreafe  of  the  velocity  of  the  blood, 
v/hich  lelTens  the  moment  with  which  it  moves  in 
them,  whenever  the  blood  begins  to  move  in  them 
with  an  equal  velocity,  or  greater,  as  it  happens 
after  an  amputation,  when  the  larger  veffels  are  tied, 
the  force  of  the  blood  fometimes  overcomes  the 
ftrength  of  the  coats  of  the  fmaller  veffels,  and  di- 
lates them  fo,  that  thofe  veffels  which  fcarce  bled 
during  the  operation,  will  fometimes  bleed  after- 
wards. And  this  conftant  effort  of  the  blood  to 
dilate  veffels  upon  the  obftrudlions  of  others  may 
caufe  thofe  throbbing  pains  which  are  felt  in 
wounds  when  the  bleeding  is  flopped,  and  in  all 

violent 


ARTERIES  AND  VEINS.  203 

violent  inflammations,  until  the  collateral  branches 
are  dilated,  or  the  tenflon  of  the  parts  otherwife 
taken  oflf. 

The  extreme  branches  broth  of  the  arteries  and 
veins  have  very  numerous  communications,  like 
thofe  in  the  ftamina  of  the  leaves  of  plants,  by 
which  communications  the  blood  that  is  obftrudt- 
; cd  in  any  vefTels  may  pafs  off  by  other  velTels  that 
are  not  obftructed  ; and  the  moment  of  the  blood 
li  in  the  veflels  lefTening,  and  the  fridlion  from  the 
i vefTels  increafmg  as  it  approaches  the  extremities  ; 
„!  and  as  many  of  the  lefTer  vefTels  are  more  expofed 
to  prefTure  than  any  of  the  large  ones,  thofe  com- 
; munications  in  the  lefTer  vefTels  are  therefore  made 
! more  numerous.  By  means  of  thefe  communica- 
tions, the  blood  circulates  in  a limb  that  has  had 
part  amputated,  and  into  any  vefTels  that  have 
;;  been  Teparated  from  the  trunks  that  fupplied 
' them,  which  otherwife  muft  have  mortified  for 
, want  of  nourifhment,  and  with  them,  for  the 
i fame  reafon,  all  the  branches  that  arife  from  fuch 
|i  Teparated  vefTels  ; and  I can  difcern  no  other  way 
? than  by  thefe  communications,  that  the  fluids 
- conmlned  in  a large  inflammation  can  fuppurate 
into  one  cavity. 

If  we  injedt  by  the  arteries  a large  quantity  of  a 
coloured  fluid,  v/e  find  ail  the  large  veins  full  of 
that  liquor  before  any  of  the  folid  parts  , are  much 
coloured  with  it ; and  upon  frequent  repetitions  all 
' cf  them  much  lefs  coloured  than,  I think,  might  be 
C 2 expedled, 


i 

204  ARTERIES  AND  VEINS, 

expelled,  if  it  Kad  gone  into  all  the  veflels  of  the 
body ; and  I have  often  thrown  wax  or  tallow, 
coloured  with  vermilion  or  verdigreafe,  through 
ail  the  arteries,  and  back  again  through  the  veins, 
even  to  the  heart,  every  where  filling  veflels  that 
cannot  be  difcerned  without  a microfcope  ; and  all 
this  without  filling  or  much  difcolouring  any  one 
entire  part.  In  vievfing  with  a microfcope  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood  in  the  tail  of  a fifli,  the  eye 
eafily  traces  arteries  to  their  extremities,  and  their 
return  in  vekis ; yet  all  the  velfels  we  can  fee  make 
bui;  : Imall  part  of  the  whole  of  what  we  fee  j 
though  we  are  taught  that  the  whole  animal  body 
is  a compages  of  vefiels,  fuch  as  we  fee  : but  if  it 
were  fo,  I think,  we  could  not  vrell  diftinguifh  any ; 
and  if  the  furo.  of  the  diameters  of  all  the  veffek 
we  can  fee,  are  to  that  of  the  breadths  and  thick- 
nefies  of  all  the  reft  of  the  parts,  which  we  fee  at 
the  fame  time,  taken  together,  but  as  one  to  five, 
thefe  velfels  then  are  no  more  than  the  twenty- 
fifth  part  of  what  we  fee  wnth  them.  What  then 
lhall  we  fuppofe  the  reft  of  the  tail,  and  thofe  parts 
which  were  fo  little  tinged,  and  thofe  which  were 
not  filled  with  wax,  in  the  foregoing  experiments, 
compofed  of  ? Are  they  not  compofed  of  veflels 
which  arife  from  the  arteries,  as  excretory  dudls  do 
in  a gland,  but  terminate  in  the  veins  ? And  thefe 
velfels  being  only  to  convey  the  nutritious  juices, 
and  what  elfe  may  be  a proper  yehicle  for  them, 
is  it  not  fit  the  circulation  in  them  Ihould  be  ex- 
ceeding 


ARTERIES  AND  VEINS.  205 

I 

seeding  flow,  that  the  nutritious  particles  may  ad- 
here the  eafier  to  the  ribres  of  the  vefTels,  which 
! they  are  to  augment  dr  repair  ? , Befides,  if  any 
I whole  part  was  made  up  of  blood  veflels,  or  any 
I -other  veiTels  with  fluids  moving  fwiftly  in  them,  it 
I feems  to  me  impoffible,  that  one  part  of  a limb  can 
: be  very  cold  while  another  part  is  hot,  if  the  warmth 

li  of  the  parts  is  owing  to  the  fluids  they  contain. 

! And  if  there  are  fuch  veflels  as  thefe,  the  velocity 
of  the  motion  pf  their  fluids  will  not  depend  upon 
any  proportion  they  bear  to  the  veflels  they  arife 
from,  but  upon  the  velocity  with  which  their  fluids 
are  feparated  from  the  arteries  into  them,  and  the 
proportion  of  the  fecUons  of  all  their  orifices  to 
the  fum  of  their  own  fethions,  at  any  diftance 
where  we  would  compare  the  velocity  of  their 
fluids.  And  the  llrength  of  the  coats  of  thefe  vef- 
j fels  may  not  only  be  as  much  lefs  than  the  ftrength 
! of  the  coats  of  an  artery,  as  their  diameters  are 
j lefs,  but  alfo  lefs  in  that  proportion  in  w^hich  the 
I velocity  of  their  fluids  is  lefs,  and  the  motions  more 
uniform,  than  the  velocity  and  motion  of  the  blood 
in  an  artery. 

The  coats  of  the  veins  are  much  thinner  than 
' thofe  of  the  arteries,  comparing  vefTels  whofe  fec- 
l!  tions  are  equal,  becaufe  the  blood  moving  flower 
\ 1 in  the  veins  than  in  the  arteries,  it  prefTes  wdth  lefs 
! moment  againfl  their  Tides  : and  befides,  the  blood 
! in  the  veins  has  nearly  an  equal  uniform  motion, 

' but  in  the  arteries  a very  unequal  one  ; and  that 

I ; will 

i 

I 


2o6 


ARTERIES  AND  VEINS, 

will  require  a farther  difference  in  the  flrength  of 
their  coats  ; for  thofe  of  the  arteries  mull  be  equal 
to  the  greatert  natural  preffure  ; and  if  the  arterial 
blood  propels  the  venal,  that  is  a farther  reafon  for 
the  different  flrength  of  their  coats. 

All  thefe  things  being  confidered,  it  appears  to 
be  a difficult  thing  to  determine  nearly,  what  pro- 
portion the  fluids  of  an  animal  body  bear  to  the 
folids,  or  what  proportion  the  fum  of  all  the  mi- 
nutefc  arteries  bear  to  the  aorta,  without  which,  I 
think,  we  can  neither  determine  the  comparative 
velocity  of  the  blood  moving  in  the  different  veffels, 
nor  the  quantity  of  blood  in  any  animal  body,  nor 
the  time  in  which  the  whole  mafs  of  blood,  or  a 
quantity  equal  to  the  whole  rnafs,  is  flowing  through 
the  heart.  But  if  each  ventricle  of  the  heart  holds 
five  ounces  of  blood,  and  they  are  filled  and  emp-v 
tied  every  fyftole  and  diaflole,  which,  I think,  is 
true,  and  if  eighty  pulfes  in  a minute  be  allowed 
to  be  a common  number,  there  then  flows  twenty- 
five  pounds  of  blood  through  each  ventricle  of  the 
heart  in  a minute.  Df.  Keil  has  fhewn  that  the 
fum  of  all  the  fluids  in  a man  exceed  the  fum  of 
all  the  folids,  and  yet  the  quantity  of  blood  which 
all  the  vifible  arteries  of  a man  will  contain,  is  lefs 
than  four  pounds  ; and  if  v/e  may  fuppofe  all  the 
vifible  veins,  including  the  vena  portse,  hold  four 
times  as  much,  the  whole  then  that  the  vifible  vel- 
fels  can  contain  is  net  tvventy  pounds ; but  the  whole 
that  they  do  contain  is  but  very  little  more  than  the 


veins 


ARTERIES  AND  VEINS.  207 

<veins  can  contam,  feeing  the  arteries  are  always 
found  almoil  empty  in  dead  bodies  ; but  how  much 
the  invifible  arteries  and  veins  contain,  I mean  thofe 
which  contain  fuch  a compound  fly.id  as  is  found 
in  the  larger  yeiTels,  I know  no,  way  to  judge,  uii- 
iefs  we  knew  what  proportion  thefe  veffels  bear  to 
thofe  that  carry  the  nutritious  juices  and  ferum  (if 
Aere  are  fuch)  without  the  globuli  of  the  blood. 
-Cteteris  paribus,  is  not  the  velocity  of  the  blood  in 
all  animals  proportionable  to  their  quantity  of 
action ; and  their  neceffity  of  food  alfo  in  propor- 
tion to  their  quantity  of  action  ? If  fo,  it  appears 
how  thofe  animals  which  ufe  no  exercife,  and  whofe 
blood  moves  extremely  flow  in  the  winter,  can  fub- 
fifl;  without  any  frefh  fupply  of  food  ; while  others 
that  ufe  a little  more  exercife,  require  a little  more 
food  ; and  thofe  who  ufe  equal  exercife  winter  and 
fummer,  require  equal  quantities  of  food  at  all 
times  ; the  end  of  eating  and  drinking  being  to  re- 
pair what  exercife  and  the  motion  of  the  blood  has 
deftroyed  or  made  ufelefs  j and  is  not  the  lefs  ve- 
locity of  the  blood  in  fome  animals  than  in  others, 
the  reafon.  why  wounds  and  bruifes  in  thofe  ani- 
mals do  not  fo  foon  deftroy  life,  as  they  do  in  ani- 
mals whofe  blood  moves  fwifter  ? 

I had  a patient,  whofe  mufcles  on  the  inflde 
of  the  thigh  were  torn  to  pieces  with  the  cramp, 
from  w’’hence  was  a vafi;  effuflon  of  blood  among 
the  mufcles.  The  tumor  being  opened,  it  w'^as 
judged  neceffary  to  take  off  the  limb.  The  pa- 

tjerjt. 


2o8  arteries  and  VEINS. 

tient,  having  a great  difcharge  from  the  wound^ 
was  eafy  for  about  ten  days  ; but  the  cramp  then 
returned  into  the  ft  amp  with  fuch  excellive  tor- 
ment that  he  died  loon  after.  I have  never  heard 
but  of  one  other  cafe  ot  this  kind,  v/hich  ended  in 
the  fame  manner. 

When  any  of  the  veffels  are  lacerated  by  bruifes, 
ftrains,  or  otherwife,  without  any  external  wound, 
purging  (which  is  of  more  ufe  than  one  can  well 
account  for)  and  cooling  applications  are  always 
proper  to  prevent  as  much  as  may  be  exlravafations 
of  blood  or  ferum  ; but  the  lacerations  once  healed, 
which  may  be  in  eight  or  ten  days,  and  the  pain 
quite  gone,  then  warm  medicines  m.ay  be  applied, 
with  opium,  or  fp.  cornu  cervi  (which  powerfully 
feparate  coagulated  fluids)  to  help  to  attenuate  and; 
thereby  diffipate  the  extravalated  juices. 

Vv  hen  the  blood-velfels  become  unable  to  pre- 
ferve  the  circulation  in  the  extreme  parts,  whether 
from  particular  weaknefs  in  the  veffels,  or  any 
other  decay,  I have  always  obferved  it  to  be  hurtful 
to  fcarify.  It  lets  out  the  juices  that  fhould  aflift 
nature  to  make  a feparation  of  the  mortified  part ; 
nor  can  it  be  known  in  what  place  we  may  fafely 
amputate  till  fuch  a feparation  which  teaches  us 
where  it  can-be  fupported,  and  in  any  place  lliort 
of  that,  an  operation  v/ill  be ’both  ufelefs  and  mif- 
chievous.  I have  known  many  fuccced  well  who 
have  been  thus  left  to  feparate,  but  very  few  that 
were  otherwife  treated ; nay,  have  known  fome 

extraordinary 


LYMPH^DUCTa  209 

cxtraordirvary  inftances  of  fuccefs  wlicre  the  pa- 
tient had  the  happinefs  to  have  no  one  about  them 
to  interrupt  the  kind  affiftanee  of  nature. 


CHAP.  X. 

Of  the  Lymph-^ducts. 


/Lymph^ducts  are  fmall  pellucid  cylin^ 
drical  tubes,  which  arife  invifible  from  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  arteries  throughout  the  whole  bo- 
dy, but  more  plentifully  in  glands  than  other  parts, 
and  in  greateft  number  from  fuch*glands  as  feparate 
the  moft  vifcid  flhids,  as  may  be  obferved  in  the  liver 
and  teftes.  JThey  cannot  be  difcerned  in  a natural 
hate  to  have  more  than  one  coat,  and  that  exceed- 
ing thin,  having  valves  at  fmall  and  uncertain  dif- 
tances,  to  prevent  the  regrefs  of  their  fluid,  ^hey 
have  frequent  communications  like  the  veins,  but 
do  not  unite  fo  often  ; the  larger  trunks  are  in  many 
places  attended  with  fmall  glands,  through  which 
they  run,  and  at  the  fame  time  fend  communicant 
branches  over  them,  that  they  might  be  fecured 
againfl;  obflrudtions  from  difeafes  in  thpfe  glands. 
They  all  terminate  in  the  vafa  laclea,  or  -in  the  large 
veins.  All  that  rife  in  the  abdomen  empty  into  the 
venailadteTfecundi  generis  and  receptaculum  chyli; 
thofe  in  the  cavity  of  the  thorax  into  the  dudtus 
I thoracicus  and  the  fubclavian  veins.']  H!’heir  iifes  are 

I ^ to. 


i.10 


LYMPHiEDUCTS. 


to  carry  lymph  to  dilute  the  chyle,  to  make  It  in- 
corporate more  readily  with  the  blood  (but  not  to 
make  it  flow  the  better  in  the  la£teals,  as  appears 
fufficiently  from  their  not  entering  into  the  minutell 
iadleals)  and  to  cany  off  fo  much  lymph  as  is 
neceffary  to  leave  the  blood  in  fit  temper  to  flow 
through  the  veins  ; for  it  is  always  obferved  that  in 
fuch  perfons  as  have  their  blood  too  thin,  the  glo- 
buli  cohere  and  form  moleculse,  or  polypufes, 
which  I imagine  may  arife  from  the  globuli  of  the 
blood  not  rubbing  often  enough,  and  with  fufficient 
fforce  one  againft  another  to  difunite  them  as  faff 
as  they  cohere.  Thefe  polypufes  are  frequently 
found  in  all  the  large  veins,  and  in  the  right  an-  ! 
ride  and  ventricle  of  the  heart,  efpecially  in  fuch 
bodies  as  die  hydropic  or  of  any  chronic  difeafesr^f 
Authors  have  defcribed  and  painted  thefe  vefd  : 
fels  as  they  appear  when  injeded  with  mercury  ; ' 

in  which  cafe  the  coat  of  thefe  veffels  being  exceed-  ^ 
ing  thin,  it  is  not  able  any  vjhere  between  the  valves 
to  refift  the  mercury’s  attrading  itfelf  into  globules : 
and  the  fame  appearance  alfo  happens  when  they 
are  vaflly  difiiended  ; becaufe  the  valves  hindering  t 
a diftention  where  they  are  feated,  the  fpaces  be-  | 
t'vveen  them  approach  to  a fpherical  figure  from  the 
equal  preiTure  of  the  fluid,  according  to  the  degree 
of  their  diflention : but  in  a natural  ftate,  when 
they  are  filled  with  lymph,  or  when  they  are  mod- 
erately injeded  with  air  or  water,  they  appear  as 
cylindrical  as  the  veins.  Any  of  thefe  veiTels  being 

burft, 


LYPvlPHiEDUCTS. 


2U 

burft,  they  caiife  a dropfy  in  the  cavity  into  v/hich 
they  open,  which  is  oftener  in  the  abdomen  than  the 
thorax.  This  kind  of  dropfy  is  fometimes  cured  by 
tapping,  and  I believe  the  reafon  why  it  no  oftener 
fucceeds  is,  that  it  generally  takes  its  rife  from  a difr 
eafed  liver.  Formerly  in  this  operation  only  part  of 
the  water  was  drawn  off  at  a time,  and  the  tap  fome- 
times left  in  the  wound  to  draw  olF  more,  which 
was  exceeding  painful,  and  fometimes  brought  oq, 
a mortification  ; and  if  they  drew  off  much  water 
at  one  time  the  patient  was  in  great  pain,  and  gen- 
erally fainted,  Vv^hich  was  thought  to  proceed  from 
the  lofs  of  too  much  of  the  liquor  at  once.  But 
Dr.  Mead,  obferving  that thefe  fymptoms  could  net 
.proceed  from  the  lofs  of  an  extravafated  fluid, 
foon  found  the  true  caufe,  which  was  the  fudden 
want  of  the  prelTure  of  the  abdominal  rnufcles 
againfl;  the  parts  contained  in  the  abdomen  ; and 
in  the  year  1705,  being  then  phyfician  to  St. 
Thomas’s  hofpital,  ordered  it  to  be  tried  there  in 
the  following  manner  : He  diredled  the  abdomen 
to  be  prelfed  by  the  hands  of  affiftants  while  the 
water  was  running  out,  and  afterwards  kept  rolled 
till  the  mufcles  recovered  force  to  do  their  office, 
and  fo  took  out  all  the  water  at  once,  without  any 
inconvenience,  which  has  made  this  operation  not 
very  painful,  fometimes  fuccefsful,  and  never  dan- 
gerous. I preferved  one  woman,  by  fixteen  ope- 
rations, from  the  fifty-fixth  year  of  her  age  to  eigh- 
ty ; another  fix  years  by  fixty-fix  tappings  : it 

muff: 


ax2  LYMPHATIC  GLANDS. 


mull  be  confefled,  that  few  cafes  fucceed  like  thefe> 
and  very  few  recover. 

I opened  a woman,  who  died  of  a dropfy  in 
the  liver,  in  which  I found  the  gibbous  part  en- 
tirely wafted,  and  the  coat  of  the  liver  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  which  contained  about 
five  gallons  of  a grofs  yellowifh  fluid,  in  which 
were  many  hydatids  about  the  fize  of  gooseberries, 
and  fome  pieces  of  matter  of  as  bright  a red  as  ver- 
milion. At  about  fourteen  years  of  age  fhe  firft 
began  to  feel  pain  in  this  part,  which  returned 
monthly,  but  in  time  grew  continual,  her  belly 
conftantly  increafmg  till  fhe  died,  which  was  in 
the  twenty-eighth  year  of  her  age,  Vvithout  ever 
having  had  her  mcnfes.  All  the  other  vifcera  both 
in  the  thorax  and  abdomen  were  perfectly  found, 
nor  was  there  the  leaft  fign  of  the  dropfy  in  any 
of  the  limbs,  or  yellownefs  in  the  fkin,  which  is 
frequent  in  difeafes  of  the  liver. 


CHAP.  XI. 

Of  the  Lymphatic  Glands. 

(The  glands  accompanying  the  lymphatics 
are  fituated  in  the  three  cavities,  in  the  inter- 
faces of  the  miifcles,  where  the  lymphatics  lie  with 
the  large  blood  veiTels,  and  in  the  four  emundo- 
ries,  viz.  the  arm-pits  and  groins.  In  the  brain 

is 


LYMPHATIC  GLANDS.  215 

is  feated  the  glandula  pinealis,  which  I judge  to 
be  of  this  fort,  having  often  feen  large  lymphseduds 
Tunning  into  it  from  the  plexus  choroides  ; and  at 
the  bafis  of  the  brain  in  the  celia  turcica  is  the  glan- 
dula pituitaria,  into  which  enters  a large  lymphatic, 
as  I imagine,  named  infundibulum  (vid.  chap.  Of 
the  brain.)  In  the  neck  are  fituated  a great  many 
of  thefe,  by  the  fides  of  the  carotid  arteries  and  in- 
ternal jugular  veins,  and  two,  or  a fort  of  double 
one,  upon  the  larynx,  immediately  below  the  thy- 
roid cartilage,  from  which  fituation  they  derive  the 
name  of  thyroidese  ; and  juft  within  the  thorax  is 
feated  another,  called  thymus.^  In  very  young  chil- 
dren the  thymus  is  as  large,  <5r  larger,  than  the  thy- 
roic  glands  ; but  in  men  thefe  glands  are  very  large, 
and  the  thymus  very  fmall,  the  former  having  in- 
creafed  in  about  a double  proportion  of  any  other 
gland  of  this  kind,  and  the  latter  having  rather  di- 
miniftied  than  increafed ; but  in  brutes,  fuch  as 
have  fallen  under  my  obfervation,  it  is  juft  the  con- 
trary. From  which  obfervations  I am  inclined  to 
conclude,  that  they  both  belong  to  the  very  fame 
lymphatics,  and  that  either  of  them  increafing  as 
much  as  both  ought  to  do  if  both  increafed,  aii- 
fwers  the  fame  end  as  if  both  did  ; and  that  the 
reafon  why  the  thymus  increafes  rather  than  the 
th)Toid  glands  in  brutes,  is  becaufe  the  fliape  of 
their  thorax  affords  convenient  room  for  it  to  lodge 
in  ; and  that  in  men  the  thyroid  glands  increafe 
io  much,  becaufe  there  is  no  room  in  that  part  of 

the 


i£I4  lymphatic  GLANDI 

the  thorax  where  the  thymus  is  feated  for  a large 
gland  to  be  lodged.  In  dogs,  a porpoife,  and  fomc 
other  animals,  I have  feen  the  lymphatics  in  the 
thymus,  and  between  the  thymus  and  du£tus  tho- 
racicus,  full  of  chyle,  and  fo  in  many  other  lym- 
phatics near  the  vafa  la£tea.  /Under  the  bafis  of  the 
heart,  and  at  the  fides  of  the  lungs,  where  the  great 
Velfels  enter,  are  many  of  thefe  glands,  from  the  fizc 
of  a pea  to  that  of  a hazel-nut.  In  the  abdomen, 
upon  the  loins,  near  the  kidneys,  and  by  the  fides  of 
'the  iliac  vefiels,  are  many  of  thefe  glands,  which  are 
called  lumbales  ; and  there  are  fome  at  the  hollow 
hde  of  the  liver  named  hepaticai : the  mefentery 
alfo  is  full  of  glands  of  a like  appearance  ; but  thefe 
feem  to  belong  only  to  the  lafleal  veins,  unlefs  fome 
of  them,  which  are  feated  at  the  balls  of  the  me- 
fentery, among  the  vens  laftese  fecundi  generis, 
belong  to  the  lymphatics  that  come  from  the  liver, 
where  the  hepatic  lymphatics  pafs  in  their  way  to 
the  receptaculum  chyli.  The  glands  which  accom- 
pany the  blood  velfels  in  the  limbs  are  few,  and 
diftributed  in  no  certain  order ; except  thofe  in  the 
four  emunaories,  i.  e.  in  the  arm-pits  and  groins, 
named  axillares  and  inguinales. 

Brutes  have  one  large  one  i;^  the  thigh,  com- 
monly called  the  pope’s-eye ; this  is  feated  about 
the  great  velfels  in  the  thigh,  where  they  pafs 
through  the  triceps  mufcle.  From  this  fitua- 
tion,  and  not  from  any  thing  extraordinary  in  this 

niand,  it  is  that  wounds  are  there  fo  dangerous. 

""  The 


LYMPHAtIC  GLANDS. 

The  lymphatic  glands  are  laid  by  NucK,  and 
others  after  him,  to  be  compofed  of  veficles,  and 
not  of  veffiels  like  other  glands  ; and  that  thefe  ve- 
licles  are  repofitories  of  lymph  : but  from  their 
appearance  in  a natural  ftate,  which  is  very  corn- 
pad;  and  uniform,  there  feems  to  me  to  be  but  little 
reafon  for  fuch  a conjedure.  Some  have  thought 
their  ufe  to  be  by  contrading  to  accelerate  the  mo- 
tion of  the  fluid  in  the  lymphatics  ; but  that  does 
not  feem  very  probable,  becaufe  a mufcular  coat 
would  have  been  the  readieft  means  to  produce  that 
cfFed ; befides,  thofe  veffels  feldom  enter  any  of 
them  without  detaching  a branch  over  at  the  fame 
lime,  perhaps  to  prevent  obftrudions.  And  if  thefe 
glands  were  endued  with  a contrading  power,  which 
is  only  prefumed  without  any  proof,  it  would  hill 
be  difficult  to  conceive  how  fuch  a power,  applied 
at  uncertain  fpaces,  ffiould  not  rather  obftrud  than 
accelerate  the  motion  of  lymph  in  the  lymphatics, 
unlefs  there  were  valves  to  prevent  a reflux  ; and 
even  then,  if  this  were  a convenient  piece  of  me- 
chanifm,  it  would  be  ftrange  it  fhould  no  where  elfe 
in  the  body  be  made  ufe  of. 

^hefe  lymphatic  glands  being  difeafed,  are  apt 
to'  obftrud  and  occafion  the  burfting  of  the  lym- 
phatics that  pafs  through  them ; v/hich,  if  in  the 
breaft,  caufes  an  incurable  hydrops  pedoris  ; if  in 
the  abdomen,  the  true  afeites,  attended  with  a waft- 
ing of  the  limbs,  which  is  never  cured,  but  may  be 
relieved  by  tapping.  \ 


C U A P. 


219 


COURSE  OF  THE 


CHAP.  XII. 


Of  the  Course  of  the  Aliment  and  Flu- 
ids, ABSTRACTED  FROM  THE  . FOREGOING 

Chapters^  . , 

i 

^ThE  aliment  being  received  into  the  mouth,  is 
there  mafticated,  and  impregnated  with  faliva, 
which  is  prelTed  cut  of  the  falivarj  glands  by 
the  motions  of  the  jav/  and  the  mufcles  that  move 
it  and  the  tongue.  Then  it  defcends  through  the 
pharynx  into  the  ftomach,  where  it  is  digefted  by 
the  juices  of  the  ftomach  (which  are  v/hat  is 
thrown  out  of  the  glands  of  its  inmofl  coat,  and 
faliva  out  of  the  mouth)  and  a moderate  v^armth 
and  attrition.  Then  it  is  thrown  through  the  py- 
lorus or  right  orihce  of  the  ftomach  into  the  duo-^ 
denum,  where  it  is  mixed  with  bile  from  the  gall- 
bladder and  liver,  and  the  pancreatic  juice  from 
the  pancreatic  gland.  Thefe  fluids  ferve  farther  to 
attenuate  and  dilute  the  digefted  aliment,  and  prob- 
ably to  make  the  fluid  part  feparate  better  from 
the  feces.  After  this  it  is  continually  moved  by 
the  periftaltic  motion  of  the  guts,  and  the  com- 
prefiion  of  the  diaphragm  and  abdominal  mufcles, 
by  which  forces  the  fluid  parts  are  prefled  into  the 
ladfeals,  and  the  grofs  parts  through  the  guts  to  the 
anus.  } 

(jThe  chyle,  or  thin  and  milky  part  of  the  alk 
ment,  being  received  into  the  ladeals  from  'all  the 

fmail 


ALIMENT  AND  FLUIDS. 


217 


fmall  guts,  they  carry  it  into  the  receptaculum  chy- 
li,  and  from  thence  the  du£tus  thoracicus  carries  it 
into  the  left  fubclavian  vein,  where  it  mixes  with 
the  blood,  and  paffes  with  it  to  the  heart.) 

^All  the  veins  being  emptied  into  two  oranches, 
VIZ.  the  afcending  and  defcending  cava,  they  empty 
into  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart ; the  right  auri- 
cle unloads  into  the  right  ventricle,  which  throws 
the  blood  through  the  pulmonary  artery  into  the 
lungs  5 from  the  lungs  the  blood  is  brought  by  the 
pulmonary  veins  into  the  left  auricle,  and  from 
that  into  the  left  ventricle,  by  which  it  is  thrown 
into  the  aorta,  and  diftributed  through  the  body. 
From  the  extremities  of  the  arteries  arife  the  veins 
and  lymphatics  ; the  veins  to  colled;  the  blood  and 
bring  it  back  to  the  heart ; and  the  lymphatics  to 
return  the  lymph,  or  thinner  part  of  the  blood,  from 
the  arteries  to  the  veins  and  the  vafa  ladtea,  where  it 
mixes  with  the  chyle,  and  then  pafles  with  it  into 
the  left  fubclavian  vein  and  to  the  heart. 

All  the  fluids  that  pafs  into  the  ftomach  and 
guts  being  carried  into  the  blood  velTels,  the  great- 
eft  part  of  them  are  feparated  and  carried  off  by 
proper  velTels,  viz.  urine  from  the  kidneys,  bile 
from  the  livir,  &c.  and  thefe  juices  carry  along 
with  them  whatever  might  bq  injurious  to  the 
animal  economy.  ^ 


P 


CHAP. 


2i8 


DURA  MATER5 

C H A P,  XIII. 

Of  the  Dura  Mater  and  Pia  Mater. 

Dura  mater  h a veiy  compad:,  ftrong  mem- 
brane, lining  the  infide  of  the  fcull,  firmly  ad- 
hering at  its  bafis,  and  but  lightly  at  the  upper 
part,  except  at  the  futures.  It  has  three  proceffes  j 
the  firft,  named  fiilx,  begins  at  the  crifla  galli, 
and  runs  backwards  under  the  futura  fagittalis  to 
the  cerebellum,  dividing  the  cerebrum  into  two. 
hemifpheres.  Its  ufe  is  faid  to  be  to  fupport  one 
fide  of  the  cerebrum  from  prefling  on  the  other 
when  the  head  is  inclined  to  one  fide.  But  I 
think  it  is  evident  that  this  is  not  the  ufe,  becaufe 
there  would  be  more  need  of  fuch  a procefs  from 
one  fide  of  the  fcull  to  the  other,  than  this  way  j 
and  it  would  alfo  be  very  neceffary  that  it  fhould 
run  through  the  brain,  to  anfwer  that  end.  The 
principal  ufe  appears  to  me  to  be,  to  divide  the  brain 
^ into  fuch  portions  as  are  leaf!;  liable  to  be  moved 
I in  the  fcull,  by  any  violent  motions  of  the  head, 
\ which  is  better  done  this  way  than  it  would  the 
other ; and  the  under  fide  of  the  brain  is  kept  fteady 
by  the  inequalities  of  the  bafis  of  the  fcull,  which 
the  brain  is  exadlly  fitted  to.  In  brutes  the  falx 
is  always  very  fmall,  therefore  in  thofe  whofc 
brains  are  of  the  larger  fize,  as  oxen,  fheep,  horfes, 
&c.  the  upper  part  of  the  fcull  is  made  ui^even, 

exadly  to  fit  the  folds  of  the  brain,  which  fecures 

the 


DURA  MATER. 


219 


the  upper  parts  of  their  brains  from  concuflions,  in 
the  fame  manner  that  the  lower  parts  are  fecured. 
The  fecond  procefs  runs  from  the  lower  and  back 
pan  of  the  former  to  the  upper  edge  of  each  os 
petrofum,  and  fuftains  the  pofterior  lobes  of  the 
cerebrum,  that  they  might  not  comprefs  the  cere- 
bellum. In  fuch  rapacious  animals  as  I have  dif- 
fe£ted,  this  procefs  is  bone.  The  third  is  very 
fmall ; it  runs  from  the  laft  defcribed  procefs  down 
towards  the  great  foramen  of  the  fcull,  and  pofTelTes 
the  fmall  fpace  in  the  cerebellum,  between  the  pro- 


ceflus  vermiformis.  Thefe  procelTes  of  the  dura 
mater  alfo  ferve  to  keep  the  brain  fteady. 


The  dura  mater  has  in  it  feveral  finufes,  which 
are  large  veins  to  receive  the  blood  from  the  lefler 
veins  of  the  brain : their  number  is  uncertain,  and 
thofe  that  are  conftant  are  not  defcribed  in  the 
fame  order  by  writers.  The  firft  that  prefents  itfelf 
is  the  longitudinalis  fuperior,  running  from  a blind 
hole  a little  above  the  crifta  galli  all  along  the 
upper  edge  of  the  falx.  A tranfverfe  fed:ion  of 
this  veflel  is  not  circular,  like  other  velTeis,  but  a 
triangle,  whofe  Tides  are  arches  of  a circle  ; the 
upper  fide  convex  outwards,  and  the  two  lower 
convex  inwards.  The  figure  of  this  veffel  is  pre- 
ferved  by  fmall  ligaments  running  acrofs  in  the  in- 
fide,  that  it  might  not  become  conical,  or  cylindri- 
cal, like  other  veffels,  from  the  equal  prelfure  of 
the  contained  blood,  and  thereby  incommode  the 
upper  edges  of  each  hemifphere  of  the  cerebrum. 


P 2 


On 


DlTRA  MATER. 

On  the  lower  edge  of  this  procefs  is  generally  an- 
other very  fmall  one,  called  longitudinalis  inferior ; 
this  runs  into  the  reftus,  and  when  wanting  is 
fupplied  by  a vein  ; the  redlus  runs  between  the  two'| 
firft  procelTes  of  the  dura  mater,  arid  unloads  with 
the  linus  longitudinalis  fuperior  into  the  two  later- 
al finufes ; but  for  the  moll  part  the  longitudinal 
linus  goes  more  direftly  into  one  of  the  lateral  fi- 
nufes, and  the  ftraight  fmus  into  the  other.  There 
is  fometimes  a fmall  one  in  the  third  procefs',  which 
empties  in  the  fame  place  with  the  former.  From 
the  endings  of  the  longitudinal  and  ftraight  finufes, 
begin  the  two  lateral  finufes,  which,  when  they 
come  to  the  os  petrofum,  dip  down  and  pafs  through 
the  eighth  foramina  into  the  internal  jugular  veins. 
There  is  another  named  circularis  ; it  runs  round 
the  fore  part  only  of  the  cella  turcica  ; the  two 
ends  of  this  empty  into  four  finufes,  one  on  the 
top  of  each  os  petrofum,  which  pafs  into  the  finus 
lateralis,  and  one  at  the  under  fides  of  the  fame 
bones,  which  pafs  indifferently  into  both  the  late- 
ral and  cervical  finufes  ; thefe  two  laft  finufes  have 
always  communicant  branches.  The  cervical  fi- 
nufes run  from  the  bafts  of  the  fcull  through  the 
great  foramen  on  both  ftdes  of  the  medulla  fpi- 
nalis  colli,  and  through  the  tranfverfe  proceffes  of 
the  cervical  vertebrae  : the  laft  of  thefe  have  many 
times  proper  foramina  running  from  the  eighth 
foramina  to  the  back  part  of  the  apophyfes.of  the 
occipital  bofte.  There  are  alfo  two  more  of  thefe 

veffels, 


P I A MATER. 


221 


veffels,  which  run  from  the  circular  fmus  between 
the  os  fphenoides  and  fore  part  of  the  os  petro- 
fum  diredly  into  the  internal  jugular  veins. 

Pia  mater  is  an  exceeding  fine  membrane  Im- 
^mediately  inveftlng  the  brain,  even  between  its 
lobes,  hemifpheres,  and  folds.  It  ferves  to  contain 
the  brain,  and  fupport  its  blood  veffels,  which  run 
here  in  great  numbers,  for  the  arteries  to  divide 
into  fmall  branches  upon,  that  the  blood  may  not 
enter  the  brain  too  impetuoufly  : and  for  the  veins 
to  unite  on,  that  they  may  enter  the  finufes  in 
fewer  and  larger  branches.  Between  the  dura 
and  pia  mater,  is  defcribed,  by  feveral  anatomifts, 
a membrane  called  arachnoides,  which  may  eafily 
be  fhewn  at  the  back  part  of  the  cerebrum,  upon 
the  cerebellum'  and  back  part  of  the  medulla 
fpinalis. 

I have  feen  a large  part  of  the  dura  mater,  and 
©nee  part  of  the  pia  mater  offified. 


CHAR 


222 


CEREBRUM. 


CHAP.  XIV. 

Of  the  Cerebrum,  Cerebellum,  Medulla 
Oblongata,  and  Medulla  Spinalis. 

Cerebrum  is  that  part  of  the  brain  which 

pofleffes  all  the  upper  and  fore  part  of  the 
cranium,  being  feparated  from  the  cerebellum 
by  the  fecond  procefs  of  the  dura  mater.  Its 
upper  fide  is  divided  into  two  hemifpheres,  and  its 
lower  fide  into  four  lobes,  two  anterior  and  two 
pofterior,  which  latter  are  much  the  largeft.  At 
the  meeting  of  the  four  lobes  appears  the  infundi- 
bulum, which  feems  to  be  a lymphatic,  running 
from  the  ventricles  of  the  brain  into  the  glandula 
pituitaria  ; this  gland  is  feated  in  the  cella  turcica. 
Immediately  behind  the  infundibulum  appear  two 
fmall  bodies,  named  protuberantise  dux  albs  pone 
infundibulum.  Between  the  two  hemifpheres  of 
the  cerebrum,  lower  than  the  circumvolutions, 
appears  a white  body  named  corpus  callofum. 
Under  the  corpus  callofum  appear  the  two  lateral 
or  fuperior  ventricles,  which  are  divided  into  right 
and  left  by  a very  thin  membrane,  named  feptum 
lucidum,  which  is  extended  between  the  corpus 
callofum  and  fornix.  The  fornix  is  a medul- 
lary body  beginning  from  the  fore  part  of  thefe 
ventricles,  with  two  fmall  roots  which  foon  unite; 
and  running  towards  the  back  part,  where  they 
divide  into  parts,  called  crura  fornicis.  In  the 

bafis 


CEREBELLUM. 


bafis  of  thefe  two  ventiicles  are  four  prominences : 
The  two  anterior  are  called  (from  their  inner  tex- 
ture) cgrpora  ftriata ; the  other  two  are  named 
thalami  nervorum  opticorum.  Beyond  thefe  arc 
two  more  procelTes,  called  nates  ; and  under  them, 
nearer  the  cerebellum,  two  called  teftes.  Above 
the  nates  is  fituated  the  glandula  pinealis,  famous 
for  being  fuppofed,  by  Des  Cartes,  the  feat  of 
the  foul.  And  upon  the  thalami  nervorum  opti- 
corum are  a number  of  blood  velTels,  glands,  and 
lymphsedudts,  called  plexus  choroides.  Under  the 
beginning  of  the  fornix  is  a fmall  hole,  called  fo- 
ramen ad  radices  fornices,  or  iter  ad  infundibulum ; 
and  under  the  middle  of  the  fornix,  one  called  fo- 
ramen pofterius,  which  is  covered  with  a valve 
named  membrana,  or  valvula  major ; and  the  fpace 
under  the  two  anterior  ventricles  between  the  for- 
amina and  the  cerebellum  is  the  third  ventricle. 

Cerebellum  is  fituated  under  the  fecond  procefs 
of  the  dura  mater.  By  dividing  this  part  of  the 
brain  lengthways  we  difcover  more  plainly  the 
fourth  ventricle,  v%’^hofe  extremity  is  called  calamus 
fcriptorius  j here  alfo  appear  two  medullary  bod- 
ies called  pedunculi,  which  are  the  balis  of  the 
cerebellum.  The  medullary  part  in  the  cerebellum, 
though  it  is  inmoft,  as  in  the  cerebrum,  yet  is  of  a 
different  fliape,  being  branched  out  like  a plant. 

The  iubflance  of  the  brain  is  diftinguiflied  into 
outer  and  inner : the  former  is  called  corticalis,  ci- 
nerea,  or  glandulofa  ; the  latter  medullaris,  -alba,  or 
nervea.  Medulla 


^24  medulla  oblongata, 

Medulla  oblongata  is  a medullary  continuation 
of  the  under  part  of  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum. 

It  lirft  appears  in  two  bodies  from  the  anterior 
part  of  the  pofterior  lobes  of  the  cerebrum,  call- 
ed crura  medulla;  oblongatje.  The  union  of  thefe 
crura  between  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum  is 
called  ifthmus ; and  immediately  beyond  this  is 
an  eminence  named  proceffas  annularis. 

Medulla  fpinalis  is  a production  of  the  medulla 
oblongata  through  the  great  foramen  of  the  fcull, 
and  through  the  channel  of  the  fpine  : it  enlarg- 
es about  the  laft  vertebrae  of  the  back  and  firft  of 
the  neck,  where  the  large  nerves  are  given  off  to 
the  arms  : it  again  enlarges  in  the  loins,  where  the 
crural  nerves  begin  ; and  the  lower  end  of  it,  with'^ 
thofe  and  oth€r  nerves,  is  called  from  its  refem-|« 
blance  cauda  equina.  The  coats  of  this  part  areS 
the  fame  with  thofe  of  the  brain  ; but  the  mem- 
brane here,  which  is  analogous  to  the  dura  mater,  \ 
is  thinner  and  more  connected  to  the  bones,  and 
the  tunica  arachnoides  more  confpicuous.  . fll  » 

Wounds  in  the  cerebrum,  though  very  danger- 
ous, are  not  mortal  ; but  in  the  cerebellum  and  ^ 
medulla  oblongata  caufe  fudden  death  ; and  in  the  | 
medulla  fpinalis,  lofs  of  fenfe  in  all  the  parts  which  ' 
receive  nerves  from  belCtv  the  Vv^ound.  In  perfons  -1 
that  have  died  lethargic,  I have  always  found  the  ? 
brain  full  of  water  ; and  in  children,  the  brain  is 
always  very  foft  and  moift.  In  a man,  that  died 
of  an  apoplexy,  I found  all  the  vefTels  of  the  brain 

immoderately 


N E U V E S. 


225 

immoderately  diftended  with  blood,  and  the  ventri- 
cles and  the  fubftance  of  the  brain  full  of  lymph, 
the  pia  mater  very  much  thickened,  and  adhering 
fo  very  loofely  that  the  greateft  part  of  it  was 
feparated  without  breaking. 

I have  twice  feen  in  the  cerebrum  a fcirrhous 
tumor  as  large  as  a pullet’s  egg ; and  in  another 
body,  impofthumations  which  pofleffed  near  two 
thirds  of  the  whole  cerebrum.  And  in  a perfon 
that  died  with  a gutta  ferena,  I found  all  the  ven- 
tricles of  the  brain  full  of  lymph  ; and  the  tha- 
lami  nervorum  opticorum  and  the  optic  nerves,  ere 
they  went  out  of  the  fcull,  made  flat  with  the  pref- 
fure.  And  in  an  old  man  I found  the  right  optic 
nerve  wafted  and  black. 


CHAP.  XV. 

Of  the  Nerves. 

“From  the  medullary  part  of  the  cerebrum, 
“ cerebellum,  and  medulla  fpinalis,  a vaft  num- 
“ ber  of  fmall  medullary  white  fibres  are  fent 
‘‘  out,  which,  at  their  firft  egrefs,  feem  eafily  to 
“ feparate,  but  as  they  pafs  forward  are  fomewhat 
“ more,  but  ftill  loofely  connedled,  by  the  coat 
“ which  they  obtain  from  the  pia  mater,  and  at 
“ laft  piercing  the  dura  mater,  are  ftraitly  braced 
‘‘  by  that  membrane  which  covers  them  in  their 
progrefs  ; whence  they  become  white,  firm, 

“ ftrong: 

O 


226 


NERVES. 


ftrong  cords,  and  fo,  are  well  known  by  tbe 
“ name  of  nerves.  To  thefe  coats  an  infinite  num- 
“ ber  of  veflels,  both  arteries  and  veins,  are  dif- 
“ tributed ; fo  that  after  a nice  lucky  injection  the 
“ whole  cord  is  tinged  with  the  colour  of  the  in- 
“ jedied  liquor  ; but  when  the  fibrils  are  examined, 
“ even  with  the  beft  microfcope,  they  appear  only 
“ like  fo  many  fmall  diftindt  threads  running  pa- 
“ rallel,  without  any  cavity  obfervable  in  them, 
“ though  fome  incautious  obfervers,  miftaking  the 
“ cut  orifices  of  the  arterious  and  venous  veflels, 
“juft  now  mentioned,  for  nervous  tubes,  have  af- 
“ firmed  their  cavities  to  be  vifible.  The  nerves, 
“ which  if  all  joined  hardly  make  a cord  of  an  inch 
“ diameter,  would  feem,  from  their  exerting  them- 
“ felves  every  where,  to  be  diftributed  to  each,  even 
“ the  fmalleft  part  of  the  body.  In  their  courfe 
“ to  the  places  for  which  they  are  deftined,  they 
“ generally  run  as  ftraight  as  the  part  over  which 
“ they  are  to  pafs,  and  their  own  fafety  from  exter- 
“ nal  injuries,  will  allow,  fending  off  their  branch- 
“ es  at  very  acute  angles,  and  confequently  run- 
“ ning  more  parallel  than  the  blood  velTels.  Their 
“ diftribution  is  feldom  difterent  in  the  oppofite 
“ fides  of  the  fame  fubjedl,  nor  indeed  in  any 
“ two  fubjedts  is  there  confiderable  variety  found. 
“ Frequently  nerves  which  come  out-  diftindt  or 
“ feparate,  afterwards  conjoin  into  one  fafciculus, 
“ under  the  fame  common  covering  ; and  though 
“ the  nervous  fibrils  probably  do  not  communicate 

“ (the 


NERVES. 


227 

“ (the  reafon  of  which  opinion  fhall  immediately 
“ be  given)  yet  becaufe  the  coats  at  the  conjoined 
“ part  are  common,  and  thefe  ftrong  coats  may 
“ have  great  elFedfs  on  the  foft  pulpy  nerves,  it  is 
“ evident  all  fuch  will  have  a confiderable  fympa- 
“ thy  with  one  another,  whereof  feveral  exam- 
“ pies  in  practice  fhall  be  inftanced  when  the  par- 
“ ticular  nerves  are  defcribed.  In  fome  parts 
“ where  there  are  fuch  conjunflions,  the  bulk  of 
“ the  nerves  feems  much  increafed,  and  thefe 
“knotty  oval  bodies,  ealled  by  Fallopius  cor- 
“ pora  olivaria,  and  generally  now  named  gang- 
“ lions,  are  formed.  The  coats  of  thefe  knots 
“ are  ftronger,  thicker,  and  more  mufcular  than 
“ the  whole  nerves  whieh  enter  into  them  would 
“ feem  to  eonftitute,  while  the  nervous  fibrils 
“ pafs  through  without  any  great  alteration  or 
“ change.  I do  not  think  any  author  has  yet 
“ made  a probable  conjedlure  of  the  ufe  or  defign 
“ of  thefe  ganglions,  whether  they  imagine  them 
“ corcula  expellentia,  refervoirs,  or  elaboratorieSj 
“ neither  can  I give  an  account  of  their  ufe  the 
“ leaft  fatisfactory  to  myfelf. 

“ From  undeniable  evident  experiments,  all  an- 
“ atomifts  are  nov;'  convinced  that  to  the  nerves 
“ vre  owe  all  our  fenfation  and  motion,  of  which 
“ they  are  the  proper  organs  ; and  the  fenfations 
“ in  the  minuteft  parts  being  very  diftind;,  there- 
“ fore  the  infiruments  of  fuch  fenfations  muft  have 
“ difiind  origins  and  courfe  to  ea:ch  part.  Though 

“all 


NERVES. 


2:28  ■ 

all  are  agreed  as  to  the  efFeO:,  yet  a hot  difpute 
“ has  arifen  about  the  manner  how  it  is  produced, 

“ viz.  whether  fenlation  and  motion  are  occafioned 
“ by  a vibration  communicated  to  the  nerves,  which 
“ thefe  gentlemen  fuppofe  entirely  folid  and  tenfe, 

“ or  by  a liquid  contained  and  moved  in  them. 

“ The  laft  of  thefe  opinions  I rather  incline  to,  for 
“ thefe  realons,  becaufe  the  nerves  proceeding  from 
“ the  brain  bear  a great  analogy  to  the  excretory 
“ dudts  of  other  glands.  Then  they  are  far  from 
“ being  ftretched  and  tenfe  in  order  to  vibrate. 

“ And  what  brings  the  exiftence  of  a liquid  in  their 
“ cavities  next  to  a demonftration  is  the  experiment 
“ hrfl;  made  by  Bellini,  and  related  by  Bohn  i 
and  Pitcairn,  which  I have  often  done  with  | 
“ exad;  good  fuccefs  ; it  is  this ; After  opening  the 
“ thorax  of  a living  dog,  catch  hold  of  and  comprefs 
“ the  phrenic  nerve,  immediately  the  diaphragm 
“ ceafes  to  acl ; remove  the  compreiTmg  force,  that 
“ mufcle  again  contracts ; gripe  the  nerve  with  one 
“ hand  fome  way  above  the  diaphragm,  that  fep- 
“ turn  is  unadBve  ; then  with  the  other  hand  ftrip 
“ down  the  nerve  from  the  firft  hand  to  the  dia- 
“ phragin,  this  mufcle  again  contradis  ; after  once 
“ or  twice  having  ftripped  the  nerve  thus  down 
‘‘  or  exhaufted  the  liquid  contained  in  it,  the  muf- 
‘‘  cle  no  more  a6ls,  fqueeze  as  you  will,  till  the 
“ firft  hand  is  taken  away  or  removed  higher,  and 
“ the  nerve  flrlpped,  i.  e.  the  liquids  in  the  fupe- 
rior  part  of  the  nerve  have  free  accefs  to  the  dla- 

“ phragm. 


NERVES. 


229 

“ phragm,  or  are  forced  down  to  it,  when  it  again 
“ will  move.  Now  if  this  liquid  fhould  be  granted 
“ us,  I am  afraid  v/e  lhall  be  ftill  as  much  at  a 
“ lofs  to  account  for  fenfation  and  motion  as  ever  ; 
“ and  therefore  all  I fhall  alfume  is  what  is  found- 
“ ed  on  experiments,  that  thefe  two  actions  do  de- 
“ pend  on  the  nerves  ; that  fenfations  are  pleafant 
“ as  long  as  the  nerves  are  only  gently  affedied 
“ without  any  violence  oifered  them  ; but  as  foon 
“ as  any  force  applied  goes  beyond-  this,  and 
“ threatens  a folution  of  union,  it  creates  that 
‘‘  uneafy  fenfation,  pain : the  nerves,  their  fource 
“ or  their  coats  being  vitiated,  either  convulfion  or 
“ palfy  of  the  mufcles  may  enfue,  ^ 

“ The  nerves  are  diftinguifhed  into  two  clalfes, 
“ of  the  encephalon  and  medulla  fpinalis  ; of  the 
“ firft  there  are  generally  ten  pair  reckoned,  of 
“ the  laft  thirty.  I fhall  defcribe  the  nerves  in 
“ the  fame  order  in  which  they  are  generally 
“ ranl^ed,  though  it  is  not  poffible  to  profecute  the 
“ diffedlion  of  them  after  the  fame  manner ; but 
“ to  fupply  this,  I fhall  mention  alfo  the  order 
“ wherein  they  may  be  all  demonftrated  on  one 
‘‘  fubjed:.  When  I aflign  the  origin  of  any  nerve 
“ from  any  particular  part,  I defire  it  may  be  un- 
‘‘  derftood  of  that  part  of  the  furface  of  the  me- 
dulla,  where  the  nerve  firft  appears ; for  by  this 
“ method  we  fliall  fhun  any  dilute  with  thofe  au- 
“ thors  who  tra.ce  their  rife  too  minutely,  and  per- 
“ haps  be  lefs  liable  to  m.iftake  or  to  deceive  our 

“ readers. 


NERVES. 


230 

“ readers.  Nor  fhall  I be  over  anxious  about  the 
“ terminations  of  the  minimse  fibrillse,  fince  it  is 
“ not  poffible  to  trace  them  ad  ultimos  fines,  nor 
“ do  I think  it  very  neceflary  for  explaining  any 
“ phjEnomena,  while  very  often  in  a multiplicity  of 
“ words  the  whole  defcription  comes  to  be  obfcure 
“ or  unintelligible. 

“ Of  the  ten  pair  proceeding  from  the  encepha- 
“ Ion,  the  firll  is  the  olfadtory,  which  in  brutes, 
“juftly  enough,  has  the  narne  of  procelTus  ma- 
millares  beftowed  on  them,  being  large  and  hol- 
“ low,  and  are  indeed  evidently  the  two  anterior 
“ ventricles  of  the  brain  produced  ; which  ftrudture 
“ and  the  lymph  conftantly  found  in  them,  induced 
“ the  ancients  to  believe  that  they  ferved  as  emunc- 
“ tories  to  convey  the  fuperabundant  mucus  from 
“ the  cold  moift  brain  to  the  nofe ; but  in  man 
“ they  are  fmall,  long,  and  without  any  cavity, 
“ rifing  from  that  part  of  the  brain  where  the  ca- 
“ rotid  arteries  are  about  to  enter,  and  running  un- 
“ der  the  anterior  lobes  of  the  brain  become  a little 
“ larger,  till  they  reach  the  os  cribriforme,  into 
“ the  foramina  of  which  the  fmall  filaments  in- 
“ finuate  themfelves,  as  upon  gently  pulling  thofe 
“ nerves,  or  after  having  cut  them  very  near  the 
“ bone,  is  evident,  and  are  immediately  fpread  on 
“ the  membrana  narium.  Their  tender  ftrudure 
“ and  fiidden  expanfion  on  fuch  a large  furface, 
“ make  it  impofiible  to  trace  them  on  the  mem- 
“ brane  of  the  noftrils,  which  has  given  fome  handle 

“ to 


NERVES. 


231 

“ to  feveral  authors  to  deny  them  the  ftructure  or 
“ ufe  of  nerves. 

“ The  fecond  are  the  optic,  which  arife  fingle 
“ from  the  thalami  nervorum  opticorum,  and  then 
“ uniting  at  the  fore  part  of  the  cella  turcica,  they 
“ feem  to  be  pretty  much  blended  ; afterwards  they 
“ divide,  and  running  obliquely  forwards,  pafs  out 
“ at  their  proper  hole  of  the  fphenoide  bone,  and 
“ enter  the  globe  of  the  eye  to  be  expanded  into 
“ the  membrana  retina.  From  this  conjudtion  of 
“ thefe  nerves,  authors  generally  endeavour  to  ac- 
“ count  for  our  feeing  objedts  fmgle,  whereas  we 
“ have  reafon  to  believe  fifhes,  the  chamasleon,  &c, 
“ whofe  optic  nerves  fimply  crofs  one  another  with- 
“ out  any  fuch  union,  do  fee  objefts  alfo  fmgle, 
“ fince  they  fo  exadtly  rufh  on  their  prey  ; where- 
“ as  if  thofe  authors’  affertions  were  true,  they 
“ would  oftener  catch  at  the  fhadow  than  the  fub- 
ftance.  The  blood  velTels  running  through  the 
“ middle  of  thefe  nerves,  and  the  ramifications  of 
“ the  retina  are  very  obfervable,  whence  we  may 
deduce  the  reafon  of  Picard’s  experiment  of 
“ fuch  objedts  as  fall  on  the  entry  of  the  optic  nerve 
“ being  loft  to  us  ; and  hence  alfo  an  account  may 
“ be  given  of  an  amaurofis  or  gutta  ferena, 

“ The  third  pair  of  nerves  firft  appear  at  the 
“ anterior  part  of  the  procefl'us  annularis,  and  go- 
“ ing  out  at  the  foramen  lacerum,  are  diftributed  to 
“ the  globe  of  the  eye ; mufculus  redfus  Fallopii, 

“ attolens,  adducens,  deprimens,  and  obliquiis  mi- 
tt 


non 


NERVES. 


232 

“ nor  ; therefore  this  pair  has  juftly  got  the  name 
‘‘  of  motores  oculi. 

“ The  fourth  pair,  which  are  the  fmalleft  of 
“ any,  derive  their  origins  from  the  anterior  lateral 
“ part  of  the  procelTus  annularis,  and  go  out  at  the 
“ foramina  lacera  to  be  entirely  fpent  on  the  muf- 
“ culi  trochleares,  or  obliqui  majorcs  oculorum, 
“ to  which  mufcles  chiefly  the  rotatory  motion  of 
“ the  eyes  in  ogling,  and  the  advance  of  the  eyes 
‘‘  forward  in  flaring  and  fury,  is  owing  ; for 
“ which  reafon  anatomifts  have  called  thefe  nerves 
“ pathetici. 

“ The  fifth  pair  arife  from  the  Tides  of  the  an-. 
“ nular  procefs,  and  after  piercing  the  dura  mater 
“ divide  into  three  branches  ; the  firft  of  which  is 
“ the  ophthalmic,  which  as  it  is  about  to  enter 
“ the  orbit  by  the  foramen  lacerum,  fends  oflf  a 
“ fmall  twig  that  aflifls  in  the  formation  of  the 
“ intercoflal,  and  then  the  nerve  is  diflributed  to 
“ the  glandula  lacrymalis,  fat  membranes,  and  pah 
“ pebra:  of  the  eye,  while  it  fends  one  confiderable 
“ branch  through  the  orbiter  internus  anterior  hole 
“ to  be  lofl  in  the  membrana  narium,  and  a fecond 
“ pafl'es  the  foramen  and  fupercilia  to  fupply  the 
“ mufcles  and  teguments  of  the  forehead.  Hence 

we  eafily  difeover  what  part  is  affefted  in  that 
“ painful  difeafe  the  megrim,  when  the  eye-ball 
“ and  forehead  are  racked,  and  fuch  a heat  is  felt 
“ within  the  nofe.  Hence  alfo  we  may  learn  how 
“ the  mufcles  of  refpiration  come  to  be  fo  much 

“ affeded 


NERVES.  233 

“ affected  on  the  application  of  any  acrid  irritating 
“ fubilance  to  the  membrana  narium,  as  to  pro- 
“ duce  that  violent  convulfive  motion,  fneezing. 
“ The  fecond  branch  of  the  fifth  pair,  which  may 
“ be  called  maxillaris  fuperior,  paifes  out  through 
“ the  foramen  rotundum  offis  fphenoidis,  and  im- 
“ mediately  gives  nerves  to  the  fat  under  the  cro- 
“ taphite  mufcle,  and  to  the  palate,  fmus  fphenoi- 
“ dalis,  and  noftrils.  The  remaining  trunk  infmu- 
“ ating  itfelf  into  the  channel  on  the  top  of  the 
“ antrum  Flighmorianum,  to  which  cavity  and  to 
“ the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  it  gives  fmall  twigs, 
“ at  laft  comes  out  at  the  orbiter  externus  hole, 
“ and  is  fpent  on  the  mufculus  orbicularis  palpebra- 
“ rum,  nofe,  and  upper  lip,  where  fome  branches 
“ of  the  feventh  pair  feem  to  unite  themfelves  to 
“ the  twigs  of  this.  The  third  branch,  or  max- 
“ illaris  inferior,  goes  out  at  the  foramen  ovale,  or 
“ fourth  hole  of  the  wedge-like  bone,  and  foon 
“ fplitting  into  a great  many  branches,  is  dlflrib- 
“ uted  to  the  mufculus  crotaphites,  maffeter,  pte- 
“ rygoides,  digafiricus,  buccinator,  myloliyoideus, 
“ geniohyoideus,  genio-gloflus,  and  bafio-gloims, 
“ glandula  fublingualis,  maxillaris  inferior,  and 
“ parotis,  to  the  external  ear,  where  it  feems  to  join 
“ the  portio  dura  to  the  fubflance  of  the  tongue, 
“ in  which  it  is  pretty  much  confounded  with  the 
“ ninth  pair : from  the  root  of  this  laft  branch  the 
“ chorda  tympani  is  reflected.  The  laft  ramifi- 
“ cation  of  this  branch  which  I fhall  mention,  is 

“ that 


234 


NERVES. 


“ that  which  enters  into  the  canal  of  the  lower  jaw 
“ furnifhes  the  teeth  there,  and  comes  out  at  the 
“ chin,  on  which  and  the  lower  lip  it  is  bellowed  ; 
“ at  this  place  it  is  again  conjoined  to  the  feventh 
“ pair.  From  this  Ihort  &etch  of  the  large  fifth 
pair  of  nerves,  and  by  obferving  feveral  phsenom- 
“ ena  which  happen  to  thofe  parts  to  which,  they 
“are  diftributed,.we  might  have  a much  farther 
“ confirmation  of  the  general  dodlrine  of  nerves 
“ delivered,  and  fee,  at  lead,  the  way  pathed  to  a 
“ rational  account  of  thefe  phsenomena,  for  reafon- 
“ ing  on  which  we  fliould  not  otherwife  have  the 
“ leaft  ground.  W e can,  for  example,  from  the 
“ chorda  tympani  and  the  nerves  of  the  teeth,  be- 
“ ing  derived  from  the  fame  common  trunk,  un- 
“ derftand  how  the  found  of  any  vibrating  body 
“ held  between  our  teeth  is  fenfible  to  us,  when 
“ another  cannot  pofiibly  hear  the  leaft  of  it.  By 
“ the  like  rule  we  know  why  in  a violent  tooth- 
“ ache  the  mufcles  of  the  face  are  fometimes  con- 
“ vulfed  ; nor  ftiall  wc  be  furprifed  to  hear  one 
“ plagued  with  the  ache  in  his  upper  teeth,  com- 
“ plain  of  a gnawing  pain  deep  feated  in  the  bones 
“ of  his  face,  or  to  fee  his  eye-lids  much  fwelled, 
“ or  the  tears  trickling  down  in  great  abundance  j 
“ whereas  the  lower  teeth  aching,  the  ear  is  pain- 
“ ed,  and  the  faliva  flows  in  great  quantities.  Wc 
“ may  have  fome  diftant  views  of  fome  foundation 
“ in  reafon  for  the  cure  of  the  tooth-ache,  by  ftrong 
“ comprelfion  o’f  the  chin,  or  by  applying  blifters 

“ behind 


NERVES. 


235 

“ behind  the  ears,  or  by  burning  behind  or  on  the 
ear.  Among  a great  many  inftances  of  the  good 
“ effect  of  the  ad:ual  cautery  in  fuch  a cafe,  I fhall 
“ give  one  which  feems  to  be  remarkable  : I.  M. 
“ was  feized  with  the  tooth-ache,  a convulfion  of 
“ that  whole  lide  of  his  face  followed  whenever 
“ the  pain  became  acute,  or  he  attempted  to 
“ fpeak  ; after  he  had  undergone  bleeding,  purg- 
“ ing,  falivation,  fetons,  &c.  without  any  benefit, 
“ he  was  cured  by  applying  a fmall  cauterifing 
“ iron  to  the  antihelix. 

“ The  fixth  pair  of  nerves  arifmg  from  the  fore 
“ part  of  the  corpora  pyramidalia,  after  piercing 
“ through  the  dura  mater,  give  off  a branch, 
“ which,  joined  with  the  refiedied  twig  of  the  oph- 
thalmic  branch  of  the  fifth  pair,  forms  the  origi- 
“ nal  of  the  intercoftal,  pafles  through  the  fora- 
“ men  lacerum  to  be  fpent  entirely  on  the  muC- 
“ cuius  abdudor  oculi : fuppofing  this  nerve  to 
“ fupply  ever  fo  little  lefs  than  a due  proportion 
“ of  liquidum  nervofum,  an  involuntary  flrabif- 
“ mus  vfili  be  occafioned. 

“ Though  the  fifth  and  fixth  pair  of  nerves 
“ form  entirely  the  beginning  of  the  intercoftal  be- 
“ fore  it  goes  out  of  the  fcull,  yet  becaufe  feveral 
“ other  nerves  contribute  towards  the  formation  of 
“ its  trunk  before  it  fends  off  any  branches,  I fhall 
“ fuperfede  the  defcription  of  it  till  tlie  original 
nerves  are  fpoke  to. 


“The 


NERVES. 


236 

‘‘^Tlie  feventli  pair  appears  coming  out  from 
“ the  fide  of  the  root  of  the  annular  procefs,  and 
“ entering  the  meatus  auditorius  internus,  and 
“ immediately  dividing,  one  part  foon  lofes  its 
“ firm  coats,  and  is  expanded  on  the  inmoft  ca- 
“ mera  of  the  ear,  while  the  other  palling  through 
“ the  aqusedudtus  Fallopii  comes  out  of  the  fcull 
“ involved  in  ail  its  coats  betv\reen  the  ftyloide  and 
“ mahoide  proceffes  ; whence  we  fee  the  reafon  of 
“the  flrfl  being  named  portio  mollis,  and  the 
“ other  dura ; this  laft  after  its  exit  fupplies  the 
mufculi  obliqui  capitis  ftylohyoidei,  ftylogloffi, 
and  ftylopharyngsi,  and  platyfma  myoides,  on 
“ which,  and  to  the  fkin  of  the  neck,  a great  num- 
■“  her  of  its  fmall  filaments  run,  v/hich  are  fome- 
“ times  cut  in  opening  the  jugular  vein,  whence 
““  pain  at  firfi,  and  a little  numbnefs  afterward. 
“ The  fuperior  branches  of  it  fiipply  the  parotid 
“ gland,  external  ear,  and  whole  fide  of  the  face 
“ as  far  forwards  as  the  chin  It  is  faid  to  com- 
“ municate  thrice  with  the  fifth  pair,  and  twice 
“ with  the  fecond  vertebra.  Whether  may  not  we 
“ hence  fee  fome  reafon  why  the  head  is  fo  foon 
“ moved  by  the  impreffion  of  found  on  our  ear  ? 

“ The  eighth  pair  of  nerves  derive  their  origin 
“ from  the  fide  of  the  bafis  of  the  corpora  olivaria, 
“ where  their  loofe  filam.entous  texture  is  very  con- 
“ fpicuous  ; then  running  to  the  hole  common  to 
“ the  oiTa  temporum  and  occipitis,  they  are  there 
“joined  by  the  acceflbrius  Willifii,  which  has  its 

“ beginning 


NERVES. 


237- 

beginning  from  the  two  or  three  fuperior  nerves 
“ of  the  medulla  fpinalis,  and  mounts  upwards 
“ thither,  to  pafs  out  with  the  eighth  pair,  at  that 
“ common  foramen  jufl;  now  mentioned  : very 
“ foon  after  they,  wrapped  up  in  the  fame  coat, 
“ have  got  out  of  the  cranium,  the  accefforius  fep- 
“ arates  from  its . companion,  and  after  palling 
“through  the  middle  of  the  mufculus  maftoideus, 
“ is  loft  in  the  mufculus  trapezius  and  rhomboides 
“ fcapulas ; while  the  large  trunk,  which,  from  the 
“ great  number  of  branches  it  fends  cfr,  obtains 

the  name  of  vagus,  runs  ftraight  down  the  neck, 
“ near  the  carotid  artery,  in  its  courfe  giving  feve- 
“ ral  branches  to  the  larynx  ; when  entered  the 
“ thorax,  it  fplits  into  two-;  the  anterior  ferves  the 
“ pericardium,  fends  branches  to  join  with  thofe 
“ of  the  intercoftal  that  go  to  the  heart,  and  then 
“ on  the  right  fide  turns  round  the  fubclavian,  and 
“ on  the  left  round  the  dudtus  arteriofus,  to  mount 
“ again  upwards  at  the  fide  of  the  cefopliagus  to 
“ be  loft  in  the  larynx.  This  recurrent  branch  it 
“ is  that  we  are  earneftly  cautioned  to  avoid  in 
“ bronchotomy,  though  by  reafon  of  its  deep  fitu- 
“ ation  we  are  in  no  hazard  of  it.  If  both  thefe 
“ nerves  were  cut,  it  is  probable  the  voice  would 
“ not  be  entirely  loft  as  long  as  the  fuperior  branch- 
“ es  ftill  fupply  the  larynx.  The  pofterior  branch 
“ of  the  eighth  pair  goes  along  with  the  oefophagus, 
“ and  fupplies  the  lungs,  the  gula,  and  ftomach 
“very  plentifully  j and  as  all  the  nerves  bellowed 


NERVES. 


238 

“ on  this  vlfcus  enter  at  the  fuperior  orifice  of  it, 
“ the  fenfation  here  muft  be  very  acute  ; whence 
“ Helm o NT  imagined  the  mouth  of  the  ftomach 
“ to  be  the  feat  of  the  foul.  What  remains  of 
this  par  vagum  is  adjoined  to  the  intercoftal  im- 
“ mediate  below  the  diaphragm. 

“ The  ninth  pair  appear  firft  at  the  inferior 
part  of  the  corpora  pyramidalia,  and  march  out 
“ at  their  proper  holes  of  the  occipitis,  and  after 
“ fending  off  fome  nerves  to  the  glandula  thyroi- 
“ dea,  and  mufculi  fterno-hyoidei,  and  fterno- 
thyroidei,  are  loft  in  the  fubftance  of  the  tongue. 
“ Authors  have  difputed  whether  this  ninth  or 
the  fifth  is  the  guftatory  nerve  ; the  old  opinion 
“ in  favour  of  the  ninth  is  to  me  moft  probable, 
“ becaufe  the  fifth  is  no  where  elfe  employed  as 
“ an  organ  of  fenfation,  becaufe  the  ninth  feems  to 
“ penetrate  the  fubftance  of  the  tongue  more, 
“ while  the  fifth  is  fpent  on  the  mufcles. 

“ The  tenth  pair  comes  out  from  the  beginning 
“ of  the  medulla  fpinalis,  betwixt  the  os  occipitis 
“ and  firft  vertebra  colli,  and  is  all,  except  what 
“ goes  to  the  ganglion  of  the  intercoftal,  fpent  on 
“ the  mufculi  obliqui,  and  extenfores  capitis. 

“ The  only  nerves  proceeding  from  the  ence- 
“ phalon  not  defcribed,  are  the  refiedted  branches 
“ of  the  fifth  and  fixth,  which  indeed  are  fo  fmall 
“ and  pappy,  and  hid  by  the  carotid  arter)’- as  theygo 
“ out  with  it  in  its  crooked  canal,  as  not  to  be  eafily 
“ traced  ; but  whenever  they  have  efcaped  from  the 

“ os 


NERVES. 


239 

“ os  petrofum,  they  are  joined  by  branches  from 
“ the  eighth,  ninth,  tenth,  and  firft  and  fecond 
“ fpinal,  and  the  largeft  ganglion  of  the  body  is 
“ formed,  from  which  the  nerve  named  now  in- 
“ tercoftal,  goes  out  to  defcend  down  the  neck 
“ with  the  carotid,  fupplying  in  its  courfe  the  muf- 
“ culi  flexores  of  the  head  and  neck,  and  commu- 
“ nicating  with  the  cervical  nerves.  As  the  inter- 
“ coftal  is  about  to  enter  the  thorax,  it  again  forms 
“ a ganglion,  from  which  the  nerves  to  the  trachea 
“ arteria  and  the  heart  are  fupplied,  which  join  with 
“ the  branches  of  the  eighth,  and  pafs  between  the 
“ two  large  arteries  and  auricles  to  the  fubftance 
“ of  that  mufcle.  Now  let  any  one  confider  the 
“ egrefs  of  the  intercoftal,  and  clofe  courfe  of  it 
“ and  the  eighth  with  the  carotid  artery,  and  this 
^ manner  of  entry  of  the  cardiac  nerves,  furcly 
“ the  alternate  conftri(ftion  and  relaxation  of  the 
“ heart  will  appear  neceflarily  depending  on  the 
**  difpofition  of  thefe  organs  of  motion,  the  nerves. 
“ The  intercoftal  after  this  runs  down  on  the  fide 
“ of  the  vertebrse  thoracis,  having  additional  nerves 
“ conftantly  fent  to  it  from  between  thefe  verte- 
“ brae,  till  it  pafs  through  its  own  proper  hole  of 
“ the  diaphragm  ; whence  it  again  forms  another 
“ ganglion  clofe  by  the  glandulae  renales,  into 
which  the  eighth  pair  enter.  From  fuch  a knot 
“ on  each  fide,  the  nerves  of  the  guts,  liver,  fpleen, 
j “ pancreas,  and  kidneys  are  derived  ; nay,  the  ex- 
“ tremity  of  this  nerve  is  fent  down  to  the  pelvis 

“ to 


240 


NERVES. 


“ to  fupply  the  parts  there.  Hence  the  great  fym- 
“ pathy  of  thefe  parts  may  be  eafily  deduced,  and 
‘‘  a reafon  may  be  given  of  the  violent  vomiting 
“ that  commonly  attends  a nephritis,  and  of  the 
“ belching,  cholic,  and  ftomach-aches,  which  often 
enfiie  on  the  obftrudtions  of  the  menftrua. 

“ Before  I proceed  to  the  fpinal  nerves,  I 
“ fhall  fet  down  the  order  in  which  thefe  nerves 
“ already  defcribed,  are  to  be  dilTedted,  in  order 
to  demonftrate  them  all  in  one  fubje  dt,  but  to 
“ them  mull  afllime  the  three  firft  cervical  nerves, 
the  reafon  of  which  will  be  evident  afterwards. 

“ Portio  dura  feptimi,  frontalis  quinti,  facia- 
“ lis  quinti,  mentalis  quinti,  fpinalis  fecundus, 
“ fpinalis  primus,  olfadtorius,  ophthalmicus  quin- 
“ ti,  motorius  oculi,  patheticus  fextus,  opticus, 
“ maxillaris  inferior  quinti,  maxillaris  fuperior 
“ quinti,  accelTorius  Willifii,  nonus,  decimus,  oc- 
tavus  intercoftalis,  portio  mollis  feptimi. 

“ The  thirty  pair  of  nerves  proceeding  from 
“ the  medulla  fpinalis  are  generally  divided  into 
“ four  fpecies ; of  the  neck  feven,  of  the  back 
“ twelve,  of  the  loins  five,  and  of  the  os  facrum 
“ fix.  Now  as  the  medulla  fpinalis  has  none  of 
“ thefe  inequalities  fo  obfervable  on  the  medulla 
“ oblongata  encephali,  the  rife  of  the  nerves  is  not 
“ fo  accurately  defcribed,  being  only  determined  by 
“ the  bone  through  vrhich  they  pafs. 

“ The  firfc  cervical  goes  out  between  the  firft 
“ andfecond  vertebra,  and,  after  fending  off  branches 

“ that 


NERVES. 


241 

that  communicate  with  the  tenth  and  fecond 
vertebrale,  is  fpent  on  the  mufculus  flexus  colli, 
“ fplenius,  complexus,  and  teguments  of  the  occi^ 
“ put. 

“ The  fecond  cervical  communicates  with  the 
“ ninth,  and  with  the  firft  and  third  of  the  neck, 
“ and  then  is  diftributed  to  the  teguments  of  the 
“ neck  and  fide  of  the  head,  and  to  the  glandula 
“ parotis  and  external  ear,  where  it  joins  with  the 
portio  dura. 

“ The  third  of  the  neck  paffes  out  between  the 
“ third  and  fourth  vertebra,  foon  communicating 
“ with  the  fecond,  and  fending  down  a large 
“ branch,  which  being  joined  by  another  from 
“ the  fourth  forms  the  phrenic  nerve  that  runs 
“ along  the  pericardium  to  be  loft  in  the  dia- 
“ phragm.  In  this  courfe  the  right  phrenic  is  o- 
“ bliged  to  make  a fmall  turn  round  that  part  of  the 
“ pericardium  which  covers  the  apex  of  the  heart. 
“ Hence  it  is  that  fuch  as  have  ftrong  palpita- 
“ dons  of  the  heart  feel  a pungent  acute  pain  im- 
“ mediately  above  the  right  orifice  of  the  ftoinach, 
“ The  other  branches  of  this  third  cervical  are 
“ diftributed  to  the  mufculus  trapezius  and  del- 
‘‘  toides,  and  to  the  teguments  on  the  top  of  the 
‘‘  fhoulder ; which,  with  the  defcription  of  the 
“ eighth  pair,  leads  us  evidently  to  the  reafons  of 
the  divine  Hippocrates’s  obfervation,  that  an 
“ inflammation  of  the  liver  is  generally  attend- 
, “ ed  with  a hiccough,  and  a fuppuration  of  that 

“ vifcus, 


“ vifcus,  with  a violent  pain  on  the  top  of  the 
“ fhoulder.  However,  we  are  not  hence  to  con- 
“ elude  fo  generally,  as  I have  obferved  phyficians 
“ frequently  do,  that  if  the  hypochondria  are  ef- 
“ fecled,  and  this  pain  of  the  flioulder  is  felt,  there- 
“ fore  the  liver  is  fuppurated  ; for  any  other  caufe 
“ ftimulating  or  ftretching  the  nerves,  fuch  as  in-  , 
“ flammation,  wounds,  feirrhous  or  fteatomatous  ' 
“ tumors,  &c.  may  produce  the  fame  effed;. 

“ The  fourth  cervical,  after  fending  off  that 
“ branch  which  joins  with  the  third  to  form  the 
“ phrenic,  runs  ftraight  to  the  axilla,  where  it 
“ meets  with  the  fifth,  fixth,  and  feventh  cervicals,' 
“ and  firft  dorfal  that  efcape  in  the  interftices  of  thc^- 
“ mufeuli  fcaieni ; and  all  of  them  are  fo  often! 
“ conjoined  and  blended,  after  they  have  given  off*!' 
“ nerves  to  the  mufcles  of  the  neck,  fcapula,  arm, 

“ and  thorax,  and  to  the  teguments,  that  when  the 
“feveral  ramifications  go  off  in  the  axilla  to  the 
“ different  parts  of  the  fuperior  extremity,  it  is  im- 
“ poflible  to  determine  which  of  them  the  branches 
“ belong  to.  The  confiderable  branches  into  which 
“ they  are  divided,  are  fix  ; thefe  I fhall  prefume  to 
“ give  proper  diftinguifhing  names  to,  by  which  the 
“ defeription  will  be  lefs  confufed,  and  the  young 
“ anatomift’s  memory  better  aflifted  to  retain  what 
“ is  fo  difficult  to  reprefent  in  words. 

“ I.  Cutaneus  runs  down  the  fore  part  of  the 
“ arm,  and  ferves  the  teguments,  as  far  as  the  palm 
of  the  hand  and  fingers. 


“ 2.  Mufeuio- 


NERVES. 


243 

“ 2.  Mufculo-cutaneus,  or  perforans  caflerii, 

paffes  through  the  mufculus  coracobrachialis,  and 
“ after  fupplying  the  biceps  and  brachiseus  intemus 
“ is  fpent  on  the  teguments  of  the  back  of  the  cu- 
“ bitus  and  hand. 

“ 3.  Mufcularis,  that  runs  down  the  fore  part 
“ of  the  arm  to  be  loft  in  the  mufeuli  flexores  carpi, 
“ digitorum,  &c. 

“ 4.  Ulnaris,  which  fupplies  the  extenfores 
“ cubiti,  and  teguments  of  the  elbow,  and  then 
“ pafling  through  the  fmuofity  at  the  back  of  the 
“ external  condyle  of  the  humerus,  runs  along  the 
“ ulna,  where  it  gives  twigs  to  the  teguments  and 
“ neighbouring  mufcles ; at  length  is  loft  in  the 
“ back  of  the  hand,  mufeuli  ihteroflei,  and  lumbri- 
“ cales  in  the  little  finger,  and  fide  of  the  ring 
“ finger  next  to  this.  The  courfe  of  this  ners’-e  is 
“ fufficiently  felt  when  we  lean  on  our  elbow,  by 
“ the  infenfibility  and  prickling  pain  in  the  parts 
“ to  which  it  is  diftributed. 

“ 5.  Radialis  goes  down  the  fore  part  of  the 
“ arm,  near  the  radius,  beftowing  branches  in  its 
“progrefs  on  the  circumjacent  mufcles,  and  at  the 
‘‘  ligamentum  annulare  carpi  fplitting,  is  fent  to 
“ the  thumb,  fore  finger,  middle  finger,  and  half 
“ the  ring  finger,  and  to  the  back  of  the  hand. 

“ 6.  Articularis  runs  almoft  round  the  top  of 
“ the  os  humeri,  and  ferves  the  mufeuli  exten- 
“ fores  cubiti,  retradores,  and  elevatores  humeri. 

“ By 


NERVES. 


2yj4 

“ By  a ftrong  and  continued  preffure  on  thefe 
“ nerves,  by  crutches  or  any  fuch  hard  fubftance, 
“ a palfy  and  atrophy  of  the  arm  may  be  occa- 
“ fioned. 

“ The  twelve  dorfal  nerves  all  communicate 
“ with  one  another : as  foon  as  they  make  their 
“ way  out  betwixt  the  vertebrse,  each  of  them 
gives  a pofterior  branch  to  the  mufculi  ereftores 
“ trunci  corporis ; the  firft,  after  having  fent  off 
“ the  brachial  nerve,  already  defcribed,  is,  after  the 
“ fame  manner  wdth  the  fucceeding  eight,  be- 
“ flowed  on  the  pleura  and  intercoftal  mufcles  ; the 
tenth  and  eleventh  are  mofl  of  them  fent  to  the 
abdominal  mufcles  ; the  tv/elfth  communicates 
“ with  the  firfl  lumbar,  and  is  beftowed  on  the 
“ mufculus  quadratus  lumbalis  and  iliacus  internus, 
“ The  fifth  lumbar  alfo  communicates  and  gives 
“ poflerior  branches  ; the  firfl  fends  feveral  branches 
“ to  the  abdominal  mufcles,  and  pfoas,  and  iliacus, 
“ while  others  go  from  it  to  the  teguments  and 
“ mufcles  on  the  fuperior  and  anterior  part  of  the 
thigh,  and  the  main  trunk  of  it  is  loft  in  the 
“ crural.  The  fecond  paffes  through  the  pfoas 
“ mufde,  and  is  diftributed  much  as  the  former. 
‘‘  The  third  is  loft  in  the  mufculus  pedineus, 
“ Branches  proceeding  from  the  firft,  fecond,  and 
third,  make  up  one  trunk,  which  runs  along  the 
anterior  part  of  the  pelvis,  and  flipping  through  a 
“ fmall  finuofity  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  foramen 
“ magnum  oftis  ifchii,  is  fpent  in  the  mufculus 

“ triceps, 


NERVES. 


245 

“ triceps.  This  nerve  is  commonly  known  by  the 
“ name  of  obturator,  or  pofterior  crural  nerve. 
“ By  the  union  of  branches  from  the  firft,  fecond, 
“ third,  and  fourth  lumbar  nerves,  the  anterior 
“ crural  nerve  is  formed,  which  running  along  the 
“ mufculus  pfoas,  efcapes  with  the  large  blood 
“ velfels  out  of  the  abdomen  below  the  tendinous 
“ arcade  of  its  mufcles,  and  is  diftributed  to  the 
“ mufcles  and  teguments  on  the  fore  part  of  the 
“ thigh  : One  branch  of  this  crural  nerve  accom- 
“ panies  the  vena  faphena  as  far  as  the  ancle.  Now 
“ let  us  imagine  the  fituation  of  the  kidney  upon, 
“ and  the  courfe  of  the  ureter  over  thefe  nerves, 
“ and  we  Ihall  not  be  furprifed,  that  in  a nephritis 
“ the  trunk  of  the  body  cannot  be  raifed  ere£t 
“ without  great  pain  ; that  the  thigh  lofes  of  its 
“ fenfibility,  and  that  it  is  drawn  forwards.  The 
“remainder  of  the  fourth  and  the  fifth  lumbar 
“nerves  join  wuth  the  firft,  fecond,  and  third  that 
“ proceed  from  the  os  facrum  : thefe  five,  when 
“ united,  conftitute  the  largeft  nerve  of  the  body, 
“ fo  well  known  by  the  name  of  the  fciatic,  or 
“ ifchiatic  nerve,  which  feems  to  be  bigger,  in 
“ proportion  to  the  part  for  the  ufe  of  which  it  is, 
•“  than  the  nerves  of  any  other  part  are  ; the  de- 
“ fign  of  which  may  be  to  afford  fufficient  ftrength 
“ to  the  mufcles  of  the  lower  extremity,  for  ex- 
■“  erting  a force  fuperior  to  what  is  required  in  any 
“ other  part  of  the  body.  When  this  nerve  is  any 
“ way  obftru<fted,  we  fee  how  unable  we  are  to 

“ fuppprt 


NERVES. 


246 

“ fupport  ourfelves,  or  to  walk.  The  fciatic  nerve 
“ then  goes  out  at  the  large  hollow  behind  the 
“■great  tubercle  of  the  os  ifchium,  and  paffing 
“ over  the  quadrigemini  mufcles,  runs  down  the 
“ pofterior  part  of  the  thigh,  giving  off,  every 
“ w^here  as  it  goes,  neiwes  to  the  teguments  and 
“ mufcles  of  the  thigh  and  leg.  At  the  ham  it 
“ fplits  i nto  two  ; the  fmaller  mounts  over  the  fi- 
“ bula,  and  ferving  the  mufculi  peronei,  flexores 
“ pedis,  and  extenfores  digitorum,  is  continued  to 
“ the  toes  along  the  broad  of  the  foot,  while  the 
“ larger  trunk  finks  under  the  mufculi  gemelli, 
“ and  then  divides  ; one  is  fpent  in  the  mufcles 
“ at  the  back  of  the  leg  and  teguments,  while 
“ the  other  is  continued  by  the  inner  ancle  to  the 
“ foot,  and  then  fubdivides  ; one  branch  is  diftrib- 
“ uted  after  the  fame  manner  as  the  ulnaris,  and 
“ the  other  as  the  radialis  in  the  hand. 

“ The  other  nerves  that  come  out  of  the  os  fa- 
“ crum,  are  fent  to  the  organs  of  generation,  muf- 
“ culi  levatores  ani,  and  obturatores.  * 

“ Thefe  nerves  of  the  medulla  fpinalis  may  all 
“ be  difledled  and  demonftrated  in  the  fame  order 
“ in  which  they  are  defcribed.”  For  this  accurate 
defcription  of  the  nerves  I am  obliged  to  Mr. 
Monro. 

The  nerves  feem,  when  examined  with  a mi- 
crofc6pe,to  be  bundles  of  ftraight  fibres  not  commu- 
nicating with  one  another : and  I am  inclined  to  » 
think,  that  every  the  minuteft  nerve  terminating 

in 


NERVES. 


HI 

in  any  part,  is  a diftindl  cord  from  its  origin  in  the 
brain  or  fpinal  marrow  ; or  elfe  I do  not  fee  how 
they  could  produce  diftindt  fenfations  in  every  part : 
and  the  diftindt  points  of  fenfation  throughout  the 
body  are  fo  very  numerous,  that  the  whole  body  of 
nerves  (which  taken  together  would  not  make  a 
cord  of  an  inch  diameter)  mull  be  divided  into  hich 
a number,  to  afford  one  for  every  part  that  has  a 
diftind:  fenfation,  that  furely  fuch  a nerve  would 
be  too  fmall  to  be  feen  by  the  bell  microfcope. 
They  all  pafs  in  as  dired  courfes  to  the  places  they 
ferve,  as  is  polfible,  never  feparating  nor  joining 
with  one  another  but  at  very  acute  angles,  unlefs 
where  they  unite  in  thofe  knots  which  are  called 
ganglions,  the  ufe  of  which  I do  not  pretend  to 
know  ; they  make  what  appears  to  be  a communi- 
cation of  moft  of  the  nerves  on  the  fame  fide,  but 
never  join  nerves  on  oppofite  fides. 

That  the  nerves  are  inftruments  of  fenfation, 
is  clearly  proved  from  experiments,  but  how  they 
convey  thofe  fenfations  to  the  brain,  is  matter  of 
difpute.  The  moft  general  opinion  is  ; that  they 
are  tubes  to  contain  animal  fpirits,  by  whofe  mo- 
tions thefe  fenfations  are  conveyed : and  diligent 
inquiry  has  been  made  to  difcover  their  cavities, 
but  hitherto  in  vain  ; and  if  each  nerve  is  diftind, 
from  its  origin,  as  I have  endeavoured  to  fhew,  and 
too  fmall  to  be  the  objed  of  the  belt  microfcope,  I 
do  not  fee  how  fuch  cavities  are  like  to  be  diicov- 

ered. 


NERVES. 


248 

ered.  Neverthelefs  nerves  may  be  tubes,  and 
poffibly  a fluid,  whofe  cohefion  is  very  little,  and 
whofe  parts,  no  finer  than  light,  may  move  freely 
in  them.  Thofe  who  deny  animal  fpirits  in  the 
nerves,  fuppofe  that  the  fenfation  is  conveyed  by  a 
vibration.  To  which  it  is  objedled,  that  they  are 
flack,  moift,  and  furrounded  with  foft  parts,  and 
are  therefore  unfit  for  vibrations,  as  indeed  they 
are  for  fuch  as  are  made  on  the  firings  of  a mufi- 
cal  infirument ; but  the  minutefi  vibrations,  fuch 
as  they  cannot  be  without,  may,  for  aught  we 
know,  be  as  fufiicient  for  this  end,  as  the  impulfe 
of  light  upon  the  retina  is  for  the  fenfe  of  feeing. 
So  that  perhaps  fenfations  may  be  conveyed  ei- 
ther, or  both  ways.  However,  it  being  ufually 
taken  for  granted,  that  it  mufi  be  one  of  thefe 
ways  at  leaft,  the  advocates  for  each  have  rather 
endeavoured  to  fupport  their  opinions  by  argu- 
ments againft  the  probability  of  the  other,  than  by 
reafons  offered  for  their  own. 


T A B. 


( 249  ) 

TAB.  XXI. 

1 Larynx. 

2 The  internal  jugular  vein. 

3 The  fubclavian  vein. 

4 Cava  defcendens. 

5 The  right  auricle  of  the  heart. 

6 The  right  ventricle. 

7 Part  of  the  left  ventricle. 

8 Aorta  afcendens. 

9 Arteria  pulmonalis. 

10  The  right  lobe  of  the  lungs,  part  of  which  is 

cut  off  to  fhew  the  great  blood  veffels. 

1 1 The  left  lobe  of  the  lungs. 

12  The  diaphragm. 

13  The  liver. 

14  The  ligamentum  rotundum.  . 

15  The  gall-bladder. 

16  The  ftomach,  preffed  by  the  liver  towards  the 

left  fide. 

17  The  fmall  guts. 

18  The  fpieen. 


R 


TAB. 


( 25°  ) 


TAB.  XXII. 

1 The  under  fide  of  the  liver, 

2 Ligamentum  rotundum, 

3 The  gall-bladder, 

4 The  pancreas. 

5 The  fpleen. 

6 The  kidney; 

7 Aorta  afcendens. 

8 Vena  cava  afcendens; 

9 The  emulgent  vein. 

10  A probe  under  the  fpermatic  veiTels  and  the 

arteria  mefenterica  inferior,  and  over  the 
ureters. 

1 1 The  ureter. 

1 2 The  iliac  veflels. 

13  The  return  inteflinum, 

14  The  bladder  of  urine. 


TAB. 


/ 


TABJoan. 


P.  2,5/. 


{ 3Si  ) 


T A B.  XXIII. 

1 Part  o£  the  inteftinum  jejunum, 

2 The  valvulse  conniventes,  as  they  appear  in  a 

dried  preparation. 

3 The  vense  hOiex  arifmg  from  the  gut,  and  paff- 

ing  through  part  of  the  mefentery, 

4 Part  of  the  defcending  aorta, 

5 Arteria  coeliaca. 

6 Mefenterica  fuperior, 

7 Emulgentes. 

8 Spermaticae. 

9 Some  of  the  branches  of  the  mefenterica  infe- 

rior that  are  beftowed  upon  the  guts. 


R 2 - ’ 


TAB, 


( *52  ) 


TAB.  XXIV. 

1 Extreme  branches  of  the  vena  porta,  as  they 

arife  from  the  guts. 

2 All  the  branches  of  the  vena  porta,  united  be- 

fore it  enters  the  liver, 

3 The  branches  of  the  vena  porta,  as  they  are 

diftributed  in  the  liver. 


TAB. 


TAOB.XXIV: 


P-  Z52,. 


( 253  ) 


TAB.  XXV. 


1 Branches  of  the  vena  cava  in  the  liver. 

2 Part  of  the  vena  cava  afcendens. 

3 Part  of  the  right  auricle. 

4 Ciftis  hepatica. 

5 Dudtus  hfticus. 

6 Dudus  hepaticus, 

y Dudus  pancreaticus. 

8 The  entrance  of  the  dudus  eommunis  into  the 
duodenum. 


% 


TAB. 


( 254  ) 


TAB.  XXVI, 

X The  left  fubcMvian  veih/ 

2 The  internal  jugular. 

3 Part  of  the  vena  azygos. 

4 Part  of  the  defcending  aorta. 

5 The  fubclavian  artery. 

6 Some  of  the  ladteals  entering  the  receptaculum 

chyli. 

^ Some  lymphatics  entering  the  receptaculum 
chyli. 

8,  9 The  Dudlus  thoracicus. 

I o The  entrance  of  the  thoracic  dudt  into  the  fub- 
cl^vian  vein. 


TAB. 


T.\B.XX\T1- 


P.2.i. 


xxv[r. 


F.s,5S. 


2 


( 255  ) 


TAB.  XXVII. 

s The  humeral  artery. 

2 Cubitalis  fuperior. 

3 Cubitalis  iliferior,  which  ends  in  the  hand  and 

the  fingers,  and  communicates  with  the 
cubitaMs  fuperior,  under  the  mufcles  of  the 
thumb. 

4 The  place  where  the  cubitalis  media  is  giv- 

en off. 

5 The  fuperior  cubital  nerve. 

The  inferior  cubital  nerve,  which  paffes  un- 
der the  inner  extuberance  of  the  os  hu- 
y meri ; both  thefe  nerves  give  off  branches 
r as  they  pafs,  and  end  in  the  thumb  and 
“^fingers, 

...I- 


TAB. 


( 256  ) 


TAB.  XXVIII. 

1 Part  of  the  biceps  flexor  cubiti. 

2 The  fafcia  tendinofa  from  that  mufele,  which 

is  liable  to  he  pricked  in  bleeding  in  the  ba- 
filic  vein. 

3 The  humeral  artery,  on  each  fide  of  which  is 

a large  vein. 

4 Vena  cephalica. 

5 Mediana. 

6 Bafilica, 

y A tumor  formed  in  the  centre  of  the  cubital 
nerve,  a little  above  the  bend  of  the  arm ; it 
W^as  of  the  ciftic  kind,  but  contained  a tranf- 
parent  jelly  ; the  filaments  of  the  nerve  were 
divided  and  ran  over  its  furface.  This  tumor 
occafioned  a great  numbnefs  in  all  the  parts 
that  nerij’e  leads  to,  and  excefiive  pain  upon 
the  leafl:  touch  or  motion.  This  operation 
was  done  but  a few  weeks  fince,  the  pain  is 
entirely  ceafed,  the  numbnefs  a little  increafed, 
and  the  limb,  as  yet,  not  wafted, 


TAB. 


t 


( 257  ) 

TAB.  XXIX, 

1 The  medulla  fpinalis,  from  whence  arife  the 

nerves  that  pafs  out  between  the  vertebrse. 

2 The  brachial  nerves. 

^ The  beginning  of  the  cauda  equina. 

4 The  anterior  crural  nerves. 

5 The  pofterior  crural  nerves. 

6 The  defcending  intercoftal. 

7 Nerves  of  the  neck. 

8 The  brachial  nerves. 

^ 9 A ganglion  in  the  defcending  intercoftal  nerve. 
JO  Branches  frpm  the  intercoftal  nerve  to  the 
vifcera. 

1 1 A probe  pafled  under  fome  of  the  intercoftal 
nerves  that  pafs  out  between  the  ribs, 
j 2 The  anterior,  crprd  nerves. 

/ V. 


* 


tab. 


( 258  ) 


TAB.  XXX. 

1 The  animalculse  in  femine  mafculino,  as  they 

appeared  in  a microfcope,  in  a fpace  as  fmall 
as  a pin’s  head. 

2 The  circulation  of  the  blood  in  a lifh’s  tail,  as 

it  appeared  in  a microfcope. 

3 An  artery,  as  it  is  fpread  in  a membrane., 

4 A vein,  as  it  is  fpread  in  a membrane. 


THE 


T.  2,SS 


'l’AP>.  XXX. 


THE 

ANATOMY 

OF  THE 

HUMAN  BODY. 


BOOK  IV. 


CHAP.  I. 

Of  the  Urinary  and  Genital  Parts  of 
Men,  together  with  the  GLANDULiE 
Renales. 

The  urinary  parts  are  the  kidneys  with  their 
veffels  and  bladder  of  urine. 

The  kidneys  of  men  are  like  thofe  of  hogs  5 
the  two  weigh  about  twelve  ounces ; they  are 
feated  towards  the  upper  part  of  the  loins  upon 
the  two  laft  ribs  ; the  right  under  the  liver,  and  a 
little  lower  than  the  other,  and  the  left  under  the 
fpleen.  Their  ufe  is  to  feparate  the  urine  from  the 
blood,  which  is  brought  thither  for  that  pui*pofe 

^ by 


26o  URINARY  AND  GENITAL 

by  the  emulgent  arteries  j and  what  remains  from 
the  fecretion,  is  returned  by  the  emulgent  veins, 
while  the  urine  fecreted  is  carried  off  through  the 
ureters  to  the  bladder.  I have,  in  three  different 
fubjefts,  taken  ftones  out  of  the  loins,  which  had 
made  their  ways  from  the  kidneys  through  the  muf- 
cles  to  the  common  integuments,  where,  upon  open- 
ing the  Ikin  only,  the  ftones  appeared  with  a quan- 
tity of  matter  and  urine.  We  have  heard  of  ope- 
rators who  have  cut  for  the  ftone  in  the  kidneys  ; 
hut  I will  venture  to  affirm,  that  thofe  cafes  were  no 
other  than  thefe,  though  unfairly  related. 

The  ureters  are  tubes  about  the  bignefs  of  goofe- 
qnills,  and  about  a foot  long  ; they  arife  from  the 
hollow  fide  of  the  kidneys,  and  end  in  the  bladder 
near  its  neck,  running  obliquely  for  the  fpace  of 
an  inch  between  its  coals  ; which  manner  of  enter- 
ing is  to  them  as  valves.  The  beginning  of  the 
ureters  in  the  kidneys  are  the  tubuli  urinarii,  which 
joining  form  the  pelvis  in  each  kidney.  Between 
the  tubuli  urinarii,  authors  have  remarked  fmall 
papills  5 and  the  parts  which  are  diftinguiffied  by 
a clearer  colour  they  call  glandulse. 

The  bladder  of  urine  is  feated  in  a duplicature 
of  tlie  peidtonxiim  in  the  lower  part  of  the  pelvis 
of  the  abdomen ; its  fhape  is  orbicular,  and  its 
coats  are  the  fame  wnth  thofe  of  the  guts  and  other 
hollow'  mufcles  already  deferibed  ; viz.  an  external 
membranous,  a middle  mufcular,  which  is  the  muf- 
culus  detrufor  mins,  and  an  inner  membranous 

coat, 


PARTS  OF  MEN. 


iGt 

coat,  exceeding  fenfible,  as  is  fully  fhewn  in  th-c 
cafes  of  the  ftone  and  gravel.  The  ufe  of  this 
nice  fenfe  is  to  make  it  capable  of  that'  uneafinefs 
which  excites  animals  to  exclude  their  water,  when 
the  bladder  is  extended.  This  fenfeVs  fo  delicate, 
that  no  fluid  but  natural-  urine  can  belong  endured, 
even  pale  urine,  or  urine  vnth  mater  in  it,  in  a 
degree  excite  the  fymptoms  of  thej^one,  and  force 
the  perfon  to  void  the  urine.  Sometimes  much 
matter  from  the  kidneys  will  excite  vehement  fymp- 
toms ; and  this  being  found  in  the  urine,  and  the 
pain  being  obferv’^ed  in  the  bladder  only,  the  kidneys 
having  little  fenfe  of  pain,  it  is  ufually  accounted 
for  from  ulcers  in  the  bladder,  which  I have  never 
found  one  inftance  of  in  all  the  numbers  that  I have 
opened  in  this  cafe.  Indeed  the  bladder  is  fometimes 
ulcerated,  but  that  deftroying  part  of  the  inner  coat, 
the  others  ftretch  and  ulcerate  till  the  urine  burfts 
through  into  the  cellular  membrane  of  the  perito- 
naeum, and  caufe  a moft  miferable  death.  This  cafe 
is  very  rare  in  men,  and  much  more  fo  in  women. 
I have  feen  cancerous  ulcers  open  the  bladder  into 
the  uterus,  but  thefe,  I think,  have  begun  in  the 
uterus.  All  thefe  cafes  have  fymptoms  like  the 
ftone ; and  not  thefe  only,  but  all  difeafes  of  the 
uterus  which  difturb  the  bladder,  and  even  impof- 
tiimations  or  tumors  that  prefs  upon  the  bladder, 
all  give  the  fame  fymptoms  with  the  ftone  ; except 
that  of  a needlefs  difpofition  to  ftool  at  the  time  of 
making  water.  Some  anatomifts,  not  thinking  how 


icon 


i62  URINARY  and  GENITAL 

fooii  fluids  taken  into  the  ftomach,  and  not  retained 
there  by  being  mixed  with  folids,  may  pafs  into  the 
blood,  as  the  effedls  from  drinking  ftrong  liquors  or 
laudanum,  or  drinking 'without  eating  when  we  are 
hot,  fufficieptly  fliew  ; and  alfo  not  confldering  the 
fliortnefs  of  the  courfe  from  the  ftomach  to  the  kid- 
neys this  way,  together  with  the  fize  of  the  emul- 
gent  arteries,  and  the  velocity  of  the  blood  in  them 
have  imagined  and  affirmed,  that  there  muft  be  fome 
more  immediate  courfe  from  the  ftomach  or  guts  to 
the  bladder  ; and  not  confldering  either  how  fuch  a 
courfe  would  have  interrupted  one  great  end  in  the 
animal  economy,  or  that  velfels  fit  to  fill  the  blad- 
der fafter  than  the  ureters,  muft  have  been  too  large 
to  be  concealed  : nor,  which  proves  it  beyond  con- 
tradiction, that  the  bladder  is  empty  when  the  kid- 
neys ceafe  to  do  their  office ; which  is  frequently 
taken  for  a fuppreffion  of  urine  in  the  bladder. 
If  in  this  laft  cafe,  upon  making  a prefTure  on  the 
region  of  the  bladder,  the  patient  does  not  feel  great 
pain,  it  is  fcarce  worth  while  to  pafs  a catheter  to 
fearch  for  urine.  In  fuppreffions  of  urine,  wheth- 
er merely  inflammatory,  or  from  the  gout,  or 
from  an  inflamed  ftriCture  in  the  urethra,  I have 
found  nothing  fo  effectual  as  bleeding  and  purging. 
In  a fanguine  large  man,  where  the  penis  was  too 
much  inflamed  to  fuffer  the  catheter  to  pafs,  I took 
away  three  times  twenty-four  ounces  of  blood,  and 
gave  a purging  clyfter,  and  two  ftrong  purges,  all 
within  the  fpace  of  tw^enty  hours,  which  faved 

the 


PARTS  OF  MEN. 


263 

the  patient,  and  delivered  him  from  exceflive  tor- 
ment. Such  pradice  may  feem  very  fevere,  but 
in  this  cafe  no  time  is  to  be  loft ; if  the  urine  can 
be  drawn  off,  the  method  of  cure  is  ftill  the  fame, 
but  to  be  pradifed  in  a gentler  manner. 

Glandulse  renales  are  two  glands  feated  imme- 
diately above  the  kidneys,  of  no  certain  figure, 
nor  do  we  know  their  ufe ; but  always  paint  and 
defcribe  them  with  the  urinary  parts,  becaufe  of 
their  fituation : in  a very  young  foetus  they  are 
larger  than  the  kidneys,  and  in  an  adult  but  a little 
larger  than  in  a foetus.  They  receive  a great  many 
fmall  arteries,  and  return  each  of  them  one  or  two 
veins.  In  their  infide  is  a fmall  finus,  tindured 
with  a footy-coloured  liquor. 

The  teftes  are  feated  in  the  fcrotum  ; their  of- 
fice is  to  feparate  the  feed  from  the  blood ; they 
are  faid  to  have  .four  coats,  two  common,  and 
two  proper.  The  common  are  the  outer  flcin  and 
a loofe  membrane  immediately  underneath,  called 
dartos.  The  firft  of  the  proper  is  the  proceffus  va- 
ginalis ; it  is  continued  from  the  peritonaeum  to  the 
tefticie,  which  it  enclofes  with  all  its  veffels,  but  is 
divided  by  a feptum,  or  an  adhefion  immediately 
above  the  tefticie,  fo  that  no  liquor  can  pafs  out  of 
I that  part  of  this  membrane,  which  inclofes  the  fper- 
I made  veffels,  into  that  which  inclofes  the  tefticie. 

I Large  quantities  of  water  are  fometimes  found  in 
either  or  both  of  thefe  cavities,  which  difeafe  is 
eafily  remedied  by  a pundure  with  a lancet;  but 


264  URINARY  AND  GENITAL 

rarely  cured  without  opening  the  cavity  where  the 
water  is  contained,  as  in  finuous  ulcers.  This  I 
have  done,  and  feen  done  feveral  times,  but  never 
thought  the  cure  worth  the  trouble  and  pain  the 
patient  underwent.  The  true  hernia  aquofa  is  from 
the  abdomen,  which  either  extends  the  peritonaeum 
into  the  ferotum,  or  breaks  it,  and  then  forms  a 
new  membrane  which  thickens  as  it  extends,  as  in 
aneurifms  and  atheromatous  tumors.  This  may 
be  decided  by  an  injedlion,  which  will  Ihew  by  the 
arteries  that  nourifh  it,  whether  it  is  a produdtion 
from  the  peritoneum,  or  a new  membranous  bag 
formed  in  the  ferotum : however,  the  dropfy  in 
this  cift,  for  fuch  it  properly  is,  rarely  admits  of 
more  than  a palliative  cure  by  puncture  or  tapping, 
like  the  dropfy  of  the  abdomen,  and  this  with  fome 
difficulty,  becaufe  the  omentum  ufually,  and  fome- 
times  the  gut,  defeends  with  it.  The  other  proper 
coat  is  the  albuginea,  wffiich  is  very  ftrong,  imme- 
diately inclofmg  the  tefticles.  The  tefticles  of  a rat 
may  be  unravelled  into  diftind;  veffels  ; and  the  tex- 
ture of  the  tefticles  of  other  animals  appear  to  be 
the  fame,  but  their  vefl'els  are  too  tender,  or  co- 
here too  much  to  be  fo  feparated.  The  tefticles 
receive  each  one  artery  from  the  aorta,  a little  be- 
low the  emulgents,  which,  unlike  all  other  arte- 
ries, arife  fmall,  and  dilate  in  their  progrefs,  that 
the  velocity  of  the  blood  may  be  fufficiently  abated 
for  the  fecretion  of  fo  vifeid  a fluid  as  the  feed.  The 
riglit  tefticle  returns  its  vein  into  the  cava,  and  the 

left 


PARTS  OF  MEN. 


265 

left  into  the  emulgent  vein  on  the  fame  fide,  both 
becaufe  it  is  the  readied  courfe,  and  becaufe,  as  au- 
thors fay,  this  fpermatic  vein  would  have  been  ob- 
ftru£led  by  the  pulfe  of  the  aorta,  if  it  had  croffed 
that  veffel  to  go  to  the  cava. 

A gentleman,  whom  I caftrated  many  years 
fmce,  who  truhed  too  much  to  his  own  refolution, 
and  refufmg  to  have  any  one  prefent  to  hold  him, 
except  my  affilfant,  during  the  operation,  moved 
fo  much,  that  the  ligature  which  tied  all  the  velfels 
with  the  procefs  together,  flipt,  and  only  tied  the 
procefs  over  the  ends  of  the  veffels ; which  being 
perceived  foon  after  the  operation,  I cut  the  liga- 
ture, and  took  out  the  extravafated  blood,  and  tied 
the  artery  alone,  which  gave  but  little  pain,  and  it 
digefted  off  in  a week’s  time,  and  the  wound  being 
( afterwards  Hitched,  though  the  tefticle  weighed  a 
pound,  it  was  perfectly  well  in  five  vreeks  ; which 
is  in  lefs  time  than  the  ligature  fometimes  rcquirCvS 
to  be  digefted  off,  when  the  procefs  and  all  the 
veffels  are  tied  together.  However,  if  this  cafe  is 
not  fufHcient  to  recommend  doing  this  operation, 
by  tying  the  aiteiy  only,  it  may  be  fuificient  to 
recommend  extraordinary  care  in  doing  of  it  tlie 
ufual  v/ay : for  if  the  blood  had  found  an  eafy 
paffage  into  the  abdomen,  the  patient  might  have 
bled  to  death. 

On  the  upper  p.at  of  the  tefticles,  are  hard 
bodies  called  epididymi ; which  are  evidently  the 
beginning  of  the  vafa  deferentia.  I have  un- 

S ravelled 


266  URINARY  and  GENITAL 


ravelled  them  backward,  in  fmgle  vefTels,  and  then 
into  more  and  fmaller,  like  the  excretory  veffeh 
of  other  glands. 

Vafa  deferentia  are  excretory  dudts  to  carry  th^e 
elaborated  feed  into  the  veficulse  feminales.  They 
pafs  from  the  epididymi  of  the  tefldcles,  together 
with  the  blood  veiTels,  till  they  have  entered  the 
mufcles  of  the  abdomen,  and  then  they  pafs  under 
the  peritonseum,  diredlly  through  the  pelvis,,  to 
the  veficulae  feminales.- 

Veficulse  feminales  are  two  bodies  that  appear 
like  veficles  j they  a,re  feated  under  the  bladder  of 
urine,  near  its  neck  ; they  may  be  each  of  them 
unfolded  into  one  fmgle  du6t,  which  difcharges 
into  the  urethra,  by  the  fides  of  the  roftrum  gal- 
linaginis,  which  is  an  eminence  in  the  under  fide 
of  the  urethra  near  the  neck  of  the  bladder.  In 
thefe  veficles,  or  dudls,  the  feed  is  repofited 
againft  the  time  of  coition  ; but  in  dogs  there  are 
no  fuch  veficles,  therefore  nature  has  contrived  a 
large  bulb  in  their  penis,  which  keeps  them  coup- 
led, feemingly  againft  their  inclinations,  till  the 
feed  can  arrive  from  the  tefticles.  The  feed  pafles 
from  thefe  veficles  in  men,  and  even  from  the  vafa 
deferentia,  in  time  of  coition,  through  the  proftate 
glands  into  the  urethra,  as  in  thofe  animals  that 
have  no  veficulac  feminales ; for  Vvdien  the  dudls 
into  the  urethra  are  diftended,  that  is  the  diredl 
courfe  from  the  vafa  deferentia,  as  well  as  from 
the  veficulae  feminales. 


Proftatae 


PARTS  OF  MEN.  267 

Proftatas  are  two  glands,  or  rather  one,  about 
the  fize  of  a nutmeg  : they  lie  between  the 
veficulsE  feminales  and  penis,  under  the  oiTa  pubis, 
almoft  within  the  pelvis  of  the  abdomen.  They 
feparate  a limpid  glutinous  humour  which  is 
carried  into  the  urethra  by  feveral  dudts,  which  en- 
ter near  thofe  of  the  proftatas.  This  liquor  feems 
to  be  defigned  to  be  mixed  with  the  feed  in  the 
urethra,  in  the  time  of  coition,  to  make  it  flow 
more  eafily.  If  the  venereal  infedion  reaches  the 
proftate  glands,  it  will  fometimes  make  large  ab- 
fceffes,  which  are  apt  to  form  finufes,  and  even 
make  a paffage  into  the  bladder.  Upon  the  firfl; 
attack  of  this  difeafe,  I have  prevented  all  this 
mifchief,  by  taking  off  the  external  fkin  by  in- 
cifion,  as  far  as  the  hardnefs  of  the  tumor  ex- 
tended, which  draining  very  plentifully,  the  tumor 
has  fubfided,  and  the  patient  been  eafily  cured ; but 
this  cafe  once  becoming  fiftulous,  is  very  difficult 
indeed.  It  often  is  cured  by  opening  the  finufes 
and  confuming  the  difeafed  parts  by  efcarotics  ; but 
a much  better  and  eafier  way,  which  I have  often 
done,  is  to  cut  out  all  the  fiftulous  and  difeafed  parts 
at  once. 

Penis ; its  ffiape,  fituation,  and  ufe,  need  no 
defcription.  It  begins  with  two  bodies  named 
crura,  from  the  olTa  ifchia,  which  unite  under 
the  ofla  pubis,  and  are  there  ftrongly  connedted 
by  a ligament.  In  its  under  part  is  the  urethra, 
through  which  both  the  feed  and  urine  pafs  j its 

S 2 fore 


268  URINARY  and  GENITAL 


fore  part  is  called  glans,  the  loofe  fkin  which  cov- 
ers it,  prsEpiitiiim,  and  the  ftraight  part  of  that  fkin 
on  the  under  fide,  frsenum.  The  urethra  is  lined 
with  a membrane  filled  with  fmall  glands  that 
feparate  a mucus,  that  defends  it  againft  the  acri- 
mony of  the  urine.  Thefe  glands  are  largefl  near- 
eft  the  bladder.  Mr.  Cowper  deferibes  three  large 
glands  of  the  urethra,  which  he  difeovered  ; two 
of  which  are  feated  on  the  lides  of  the  urethra 
near  the  ends  of  the  crura  penis  ; to  which  he 
adds  a third,  lefs  than  the  other,  feated  almoft  in 
the  urethra,  a little  nearer  the  glans  than  the  for- 
mer. All  thefe  glands  have  excretory  du<fts  into 
the  urethra,  and  from  them  are  fecreted  all  the 
matter  which  flows  from  the  urethra  in  a gonor- 
rhoea, whether  venereal  or  not.  In  the  venereal 
infe<ftion,  the  urethra  and  the  glands  are  firft  in- 
flamed by  the  contagious  matter,  that  caufes  a heat 
of  urine,  which  abates  as  foqn  as  the  glands  begin 
to  difeharge  freely ; but  if  by  chance  this  difeafe 
continues  till  any  part  of  the  urethra  is  ulcerated  ; 
the  ulcer  never  heals  without  a cicatrix,  which 
conftrids  the  urethra,  and  makes  that  difeafe 
which  is  vulgarly  called  a caruncle.  The  inner 
texture  of  the  penis  is  fpongy,  like  the  inner  tex- 
ture of  the  fpleen,  or  the  ends  of  the  great  bones. 
It  is  ufually  diftinguifhed  into  corpus  cavernofum 
penis,  glandis,  and  urethrte.  The  firft  of  thefe 
makes  part  of  the  glans,  and  is  divided  its  whole 
length  by  a feptum ; the  other  two  are  compofed 

of 


PARTS  DF  M E N, 


269 

ef  finaller  cells,  and  are  but  one  body.  On  the 
upper  fide  of  the  penis  are  two  arteries,  and  one 
vein  called  vena  ipfius  penis.  The  arteries  are  de- 
rived from  the  beginnings  of  the  umbilical  arteries, 
which  parts  never  dry  up,  and  the  vein  runs  back 
to  the  iliac  veins.  The  vena  iplius  penis,  being 
obftrudfed,  the  blood  that  comes  by  the  arteries, 
diftends  the  cells  of  the  whole  penis,  and  makes 
it  erecff  ; but  to  prevent  mifchief  from  this  me- 
chanifm,  there  are  final!  collateral  veins  on  the  fur- 
face  of  the  penis,  that  carry  back  fome  blood  all 
the  time  the  penis  is  eredt ; but  by  what  power 
the  vena  ipfius  penis  is  obftrufted  to  eredt  the 
penis,  I cannot  conceive,  unlefs  fmall  mufcular 
fibres  conftrid  it.  Some  think  the  mufculi  ercc- 
tores  penis  do  it,  by  thrufting  the  penis  againft 
the  os  pubis ; but  they  feem  not  feated  conveni- 
ently for  fuch  an  office  ; befides,  if  a prefTure 
from  the  lower  fide  of  the  penis  is  fufficient,  an 
artificial  prefTure,  which  may  be  much  greater, 
fhould,  I think,  produce  the  fame  effeft, 

In  the  feed  of  men,  and  of  other  male  animals, 
Lewenhoeck,  by  the  help  of  microfcopes,  dif- 
covered  an  infinite  number  of  animals  like  tad- 
poles, which  he  and  others  fiippofe  to  be  men  in 
miniature,  and  that  one  of  thefe  being  entered 
into  an  egg  in  one  of  the  ovaria  (fee  the  next 
chapter)  conception  is  performed.  But  though 
fcarce  any  one,  that  has  made  due  inquiry,  has 
ever  doubted  of  the  exiftence  of  thefe  animals, 


270  URINARY  and  GENITAL 

yet  there  are  many  who  objedl  againft  this  hypoth^ 
efis ; and  though  I am  inclined  to  think  it  true, 
yet  I will  endeavour  impartially  to  lay  down  the 
principal  objediions  and  anfwers,  that  the  reader 
may  judge  for  himfelf.  The  find  and  ftrongeft 
objedlion,  is  raifed  from  the  feveral  inftances  that 
have  happened  of  mixed  generation,  where  the 
animal  produced  always  appears  to  partake  of  both 
kinds,  as  in  the  common  cafe  of  a mule,  which 
is  begot  by  an  afs  upon  a mare ; when,  according 
to  that  hypothefis,  they  expedt  the  animal  pro- 
duced from  mixed  generation  fhould  be  entirely 
of  the  fame  fpecies  with  the  male  animal ; as  the 
feeds  of  plants,  whatever  earth  they  grow  in,  al- 
ways produce  plants  of  the  fame  kind.  Never- 
thelefs,  if  we  confider  what  influence  women’s 
fears  or  longings  frequently  have  upon  their  chil- 
dren in  utero,  and  how  great  a change  caftration 
makes  in  the  fhape  of  any  animal,  we  cannot 
then  wonder  if  the  mother’s  blood,  to  which  the 
animal  owes  its  nourifliment  and  increafe,  from 
the  time  of  impregnation  to  the  time  of  its  birth, 
fliould  be  thought  a fufficient  caufe  of  refemblance 
between  thefe  animals  and  their  mothers.  Anoth- 
er objection  is,  that  nature  fhould  provide  fuch 
a multiplicity  of  thefe  animals,  yrhen  fo  few  can 
ever  be  of  ufe.  To  which  it  has  been  anfwered, 
that  in  plants  a very  few  of  the  whole  that  are 
produced,  fall  into  the  earth,  and  produce  plants ; 
and  as  in  plants  the  greateft  part  of  their  feeds 

are 


PARTS  OF  MEN. 


271 

.are  the  food  of  animals,  fo  the  greateft  part  of 
the  animalculse  may  as  well  live  a time  to  enjoy 
their  own  exiftence,  as  any  other  animal  of  as  low 
an  order.  The  laft  objedlion  is  their  lhape,  which 
I think  will  appear  to  have  no  great  weight, 
when  we  confider  how  the  eggs  of  flies  produce 
maggots,  which  grow  up  into  flies ; and  the  tad- 
pole produced  from  the  egg  of  a frog,  grows  into 
a form  as  different  from  a tadpole  as  the  form  of 
a man  : and  if  thefe  animals  had  produced  fo  few 
at  a time,  as  that  their  young  might  have  under- 
gone this  change  in  utero,  it  is  highly  probable, 
that  we  fhould  not  fo  much  as  have  fufpe<2:ed  thefe 
analogous  changes.  But  how  the  animalculse 
themfelves  are  produced,  is  a difficult  queftion, 
unlefs  by  equivocal  generation,  feeing,  none  of 
them  appear  to  be  in  a flate  of  increafe,  but  all 
of  a fize. 

In  a boy  that  died  of  the  ftone,  I found  a 
double  ureter,  each  part  being  dilated  to  an  inch 
diameter ; the  pelvis  in  each  kidney  to  twice  its 
natural  bignefs,  and  the  tubuli  urinarii,  each  as 
large  as  the  pelvis. 

In  a man  that  had  never  been  cut  for  the  ftone, 
I found  the  ureters  dilated  in  fome  places  to  four 
inches  circumference,  and  in  others  but  little  dilat- 
ed, and  a ftone  that  I found  in  the  bladder  was 
lels  than  a nutmeg,  which  muft  have  fallen  in  fev- 
eral  pieces,  or  both  ureters  could  not  have  been 
dilated.  From  this,  and  other  like  obfen'ations, 

I think 


272  GENITAL  PARTS  of  WOMEN. 


I think  it  appears,  that  the  great  fize  to  which 
the  ureters  are  ufually  extended,  in  people  who 
are  troubled  with  the  ftone,  is  owing  to  fmall 
Rones  which  flick  at  the  entrance  into  the  blad- 
der, until  the  obftrudted  urine,  which  dilates  the 
ureters,  can  force  them  into  the  bladder. 

I have  in  feveral  fubjedls  found  one  kidney  al- 
moft  confumed,  and  once  a man  with  but  one  kid- 
ney ; and  I have  feen  lymphatics  in  a difeafed 
tefticle,  as  large  as  a crow-quill. 


CHAP.  II. 

Of  the  Genital  Parts  of  Women. 

The  external  parts  are  the  mons  veneris,  which 
is  that  rifing  of  fat  covered  with  hair  above  the 
rima  magna  upon  the  os  pubis,  the  great  doub- 
ling of  the  fkin  on  each  fide  the  rima  called  labia, 
and  within  thefe  a leffer  doubling  named  nymphse. 
Thefe  help  to  clofe  up  the  orifice  of  the  vagi- 
na. The  nymphac  are  ufually  faid  to  ferve  to  de- 
fend the  labia  from  the  urine  ; but  I do  not  fee 
how  the  labia  Rand  more  in  need  of  fuch  a de- 
fence, than  the  nymphse  themfelves. 

Clitoris  is  a fm.all  fpongy  body,  bearing 
fome  analogy  to  the  penis  in  men,  but  has  no 
urethra.  It  begins  with  two  crura  from  the  ofla 
ifchia,  which  uniting  under  the  ofia  pubis,  it 

proceeds 


GENITAL  PARTS  of  WOMEN.  273 

proceeds  to  the  upper  part  of  the  nymphse,  where 
it  ends  under  a fmall  doubling  of  fkin,  called  prse- 
putium  ; and  the  end  which  is  thus  covered  is  cal- 
led glans.  This  is  faid  to  be  the  chief  feat  of 
pleafure  in  coition,  in  women,  as  the  glans  is  in 
men. 

A little  lower  than  this,  juft  wnthin  the  vagina, 
is  the  exit  of  the  meatus  urinarius. 

Vagina  is  feated  between  the  bladder  of  urine 
and  the  inteftinum  redtum.  The  texture  of  it 
is  membranous,  and  its  orifice  is  contracted  with 
a fphindter  (vid.  mine.  fphinCter  vagina;)  but  the 
farther  part  is  capacious  enough  to  contain  the  pe- 
nis without  dilating.  Near  the  beginning  of  the 
vagina,  immediately  behind  the  orifice  of  the 
meatus  urinarius,  is  ccnftantly  found  in  children 
a valve  called  hymen,  which,  looking  towards  the 
orifice  of  the  vagina,  clofes  it ; but  as  children 
grow  up,  and  the  fphinCler  vaginse  grows  ftrong 
enough  to  contraCt  and  clofe  the  orifice  of  the 
vagina,  this  valve  becoming  ufelefs,  ceafes  to  in- 
creafe,  and  is  then  known  by  the  name  of  carun- 
culae  myrtiformes.  There  have  been  a few  in- 
ftances  in  which  the  edges  of  this  growing  together, 
it  continued  unperforate,  until  it  has  been  necefia- 
ry  to  make  an  incifion  to  let  out  the  menfes.  The 
inner  part  of  the  vagina  is  formed  into 
which  are  largeft  in  thofe  who  have  not  ufed  cop- 
! ulation  ; and  leaft  in  thofe  who  have  had  many 
! children.  Under  thefe  rugse  are  fmall  glands, 
i whole 


274  genital  parts  of  WOMEN. 

X, 

v/hofe  excretory  du£ts  are  called  lacunae : tliefe 
glands  feparate  a mucilaginous  matter  to  lubricate 
the  vagina,  efpecially  in  coition : and  are  the  feat 
of  a gonorrhoea  in  this  fex,  as  the  glands  in  the 
urethra  are  in  the  male. 

Uterus  is  feated  at  the  end  of  the  vagina  ; it 
is  about  one  inch  thick,  two  broad,  and  large 
enough  to  contain  the  kernel  of  a hazel-nut ; but 
in  women  that  have  had  children,  a little  larger. 
Its  orifice  into  the  vagina  is  called  os  tincae,  from 
the  refemblance  it  bears  to  a tench’s  mouth.  It 
has  two  round  ligaments  which  go  from  the  fides 
of  it  to  the  groins  through  the  oblique  and  tranf- 
verfe  mufcles  of  the  abdomen,  in  the  fame  man- 
ner as  do  the  feminal  veflels  in  men.  This  way 
the  gut  palTes  in  a hernia  inteftinalis  in  women 
(vid.  mufculi  abdominis.)  Some  authors  mention 
ligamenta  lata,  which  are  nothing  but  a part  of 
the  peritonaeum.  Near  the  fides  of  the  uterus  lie 
two  bodies  called  o varia  ; they  are  of  a depreffed 
oval  figure,  about  half  the  fize  of  men’s  tefticles, 
and  have  fpermatic  veffels  ; they  contain  fmall  pel- 
lucid eggs,  from  which  they  have  their  name. 
There  are  two  arteries  and  two  veins,  which  pafs 
to  and  from  the  ovaries  or  teftes,  in  the  fame 
manner  that  they  do  in  men  ; but  make  more 
windings,  and  the  arteries  dilate  more  fuddenly, 
in  proportion  as  they  are  fhorter.  Thefe  arteries^ 
and  veins  detach  branches  into  the  uterus  and  fal-  -y 
lopian  tubes,  and  not  only  make  communications 

^ betwixt 


GENITAL  PARTS  of  WOMEN.  275 

betwixt  the  artery  and  vein  on  one  fide  and  thofe 
of  the  other,  but  alfo  with  the  proper  veflels  of  the 
uterus,  which  are  detached  from  the  internal  iliac 
arteries  and  veins.  From  thefe  veifels  in  the  iii- 
fide  of  the  uterus,  the  menftrual  purgations  are 
made  in  women,  and  fomething  of  the  fame  kind 
in  brutes,  as  often  as  they  defire  coition.  One  ufe 
of  thefe  purgations  is,  to  open  the  veflels  of  the 
uterus,  for  the  veflTels  of  the  placenta  to  join  to 
them.  Many  authors  have  imagined,  that  there 
muft  be  feme  evacuations  analogous  to  this,  in 
men,  which  I cannot  fee  the  neceflity  of  ; but, 
on  the  contrary,  I believe  that  men’s  not  having 
/uch  evacuations,  is  the  true  reafon  why  their  bod- 
ies grow  larger  and  ftronger  then  women’s : and 
their  continuing  to  grow  longer  before  they  are  fit 
for  marriage,  I alfo  take  to  be  the  true  reafon 
why  there  are  more  males  born  than  females,  in 
about  the  proportion  of  thirteen  to  twelve ; for 
women  being  fooner  fit  for  marriage  than  men, 
fewer  will  die  before  that  time,  than  of  men. 

Near  the  fides'  of  the  ovaria  are  feated  the 
tub;£  fallopian^,  one  end  of  which  is  conned:ed  to 
the  uterus  and  the  fide  of  the  ovarium  by  a mem- 
brane, the  other  end  is  loofe,  and  being  jagged  is 
called  morfus  diaboli.  Among  thefe  jaggs  is  a 
fmall  orifice  which  leads  into  the  tube,  which 
near  this  end  is  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  diame- 
ter, and  thence,  growing  gradually  fmaller,  panes 
to  the  uterus,  and  enters  there  with  an  orifice 

about 


276  GENITAL  PARTS  of  WOMEN. 

about  the  fize  of  a hog’s  briftle.  The  ufe  of  thefe 
tubes  is  to  convey  the  male  feed  from  the  uterus  to 
the  ovaria,  to  impregnate  the  eggs  for  conceptions  j 
yet  they  appear  fo  ill  adapted  to  this  end,  that 
many  have  fuppofed  there  muft  be  fome  other 
paffage  from  the  uterus  to  the  ovaria : but  'when 
we  confider  the  cafe  of  conceptions  found  in  thefe 
tubes,  and  the  exa£l:  analogy  between  thefe  and 
the  tubes  of  birds,  where  we  have  the  moft  un- 
deniable proofs  of  the  feed  going  through  the 
tube,  and  of  the  eggs  being  impregnated  that  way, 
and  of  the  eggs  coming  from  the  ovarium  through 
the  tube,  and  feemingly  with  much  greater,  dif- 
ficulty than  in  women ; and  befides,  how  fre- 
quently a matter  like  the  male  feed  (which  I fup- 
pofe  is  feed)  is  found  in  the  fallopian  tubes  of 
women,  as  I have  found  in  executed  bodies,  and 
in  a common  whore  that  died  fuddenly,  it  appears 
to  me  almoft  certain,  that  the  feed  goes  through 
the  fallopian  tubes  to  the  ovaria  to  impregnate 
eggs,  and  comes  back  through  the  fame  tubes  to 
the  uterus.  I have  feen  in  a woman  both  the  fal- 
lopian tubes  unperforated,  which,  upon  the  fore- 
going hypothefis,  muft  have  caufed  barrennefs, 
and  feed  lodged  in  thefe  tubes  may  have  the  fame 
effecft  ; which  I take  to  be  often  the  cafe  of  com- 
mon whores,  and  women  that  ufe  coition  too  fre- 
cjuently  ; and  perhaps  the  fat  in  the  membrane 
that  ccnneds  the  ovaria  to  the  tubes,  may  in  very 
fiit  rvomen  fo  keep  thefe  tubes  from  the  ovaria  as 

to 


GENITAL  fARTS  of  WOMEN. 


277 

to  interrupt  impregnations ; and  bcfides  thefe 
cafes,  too  much  or  too  little  of  the  menfes  may 
deftroy  or  interrupt  conceptions ; but  the  latter 
cafe,  efpecially  in  young  women,  is  very  rare. 
From  fuch  caufes  as  thefe,  and  not  from  imbecil- 
ity, I imagine  it  is  that  barrennefs  oftener  pro- 
ceeds from  women  than  men ; and  though  women 
do  not  propagate  to  fo  great  an  age  as  men,  it  is 
not,  I believe,  for  want  of  being  impregnated, 
but  from  their  menfes  ceafing,  and  thofe  velfels 
being  clofed  which  fliould  nourifh  the  fcetus  after 
the  impregnation,  as  if  on  purpofe  to  prevent  the 
propagation  of  a feeble  and  infirm  fpecies.  And 
from  this  confideration,  one  cannot  but  think  that 
the  perfedion  of  the  foetus,  notwithftanding  it  is 
firft  formed  in  the  male  feed,  depends  more  upon 
the  female  than  the  male ; or  elfe  that  nature  would, 
for  the  fake  of  the  fpecies,  have  been  careful  to 
hinder  men  as  well  as  women  from  propagating  in 
a declining  age. 


CHAP, 


( 278  ) 


CHAP.  III. 

Of  the  Foetus  in  Utero. 

1 HE  foetus  in  utero  is  involved  in  two  coats, 
viz.  chorion,  which  is  external,  and  amnion,  which 
immediately  inclofes  the  foetus.  They  contain 
a quantity  of  liquor,  which  is  a proper  medium 
for  fo  tender  a being  as  the  foetus  to  reft  in,  and 
partly  fecures  it  from  external  injuries,  as  the  aque- 
ous humour  does  the  chryftalline  in  the  eye ; and 
when  the  membranes  burft  at  the  time  of  produc- 
tion, this  humour  lubricates  the  vagina  uteri,  to 
render  the  birth  lefs  difficult.  And  feeing  the 
ftomach  of  a foetus  in  utero  is  always  full  of  a 
fluid,  like  what  is  contained  in  the  amnion,  and 
the  guts  not  without  excrements  ; we  may  fuppofe 
that  this  fluid  is  frequently,  during  the  time  of 
geftation,  fwallowed  by  the  foetus,  if  not  for  nour- 
ifhment,  at  leaft  to  keep  thefe  parts  in  ufe,  and  to. 
flow  through  the  ladteals,  as  a quantity  of  blood 
from  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart  flows  through 
the  lungs  before  the  birth  to  keep  open  thofe 
paffiages  till  the  birth,  there  being  after  that  time 
no  other  way  of  receiving  nourilhment,  and  that . 
the  fsEces  found  in  the  guts  of  a foetus  are  thofe 
parts  of  this  fluid  that  were  taken  in  at  the  mouth, 
and  v/ere  too  grofs  to  enter  the  lacfteals.  Yet  I 
own  it  takes  off  very  much  from  the  probabil- 
ity of  the  opinion  of  the  fetus’s  imbibing  this 

liquor. 


FCETUS  IN  UTERO.  279 

liquor,  that,  if  I am  rightly  informed,  fome  who 
have  been  born  with  mouths  and  noftrils  unper- 
forate,  have  had  fuch  fluids  and  excrements  in  the 
inteflines  that  other  foetus’s  have,  which  mufl;  be 
eonfeifed,  may  be  derived  from  the  falivary  glands 
and  from  the  liver,  &c.  The  following  curious 
paflage  was  fent  me  by  Mr.  Monro.  “ This  li- 
“ quor  contributes  nothing  to  the  nourifhment  of 
“ the  foetus,  for  thefe  reafons ; firft,  becaufe,  as 
“ you  have  well  obferved,  vaft  numbers  of  in- 
“ ftances  might  be  produced,  where  no  paflTage 
“ was  to  be  found  for  it : I fliall  give  you  one  I 
“ faw  myfelf  in  the  Hotel  de  Dieu  at  Paris,  in 
“ 1718. 

“ Mary  Guerlin  brought  forth  two  children, 
“ one  a complete  girl,  the  other  had  neither  head, 
“ neck,  arms,  heart,  lungs,  ftomach,  fmall  guts, 
“ liver,  fpleen,  or  pancreas,  yet  the  great  guts, 
“ the  organs  of  urine  and  generation  of  a female, 
“ and  lower  extremities  were  perfect,  and  of  a na- 
“ tural  growth  ; the  umbilical  vein,  after  entering 
“ the  abdomen,  fplit  into  a great  many  branches, 
“ which  were  diftributed  to  the  feveral  parts  in 
“ its  abdomen.  Though  it  is  true  that  foon  af- 
“ ter  conception,  the  liquor  in  the  amnion,  and 
“ that  in  the  ftomach  of  the  foetus  refemble  one 
“ another  pretty  near,  yet  afterward  they  differ 
“ exceedingly ; for  the  liquor  in  the  ftomach  is 
“ ftill  gelatinous,  thick,  and  without  acrimony, 
“ while  the  other  becomes  thinner  and  more  acrid  ; 

“ w’^hereas, 


28o 


FCETUS  IN  UTERO. 


■”  whereas,  had  the  foetus  conftantly  fwallowed 
‘‘  this  liquor,  the  cafe  would  have  been,  quite  op- 
“ pofite ; nay,  often  it  has  happened  that  thefe 
“ waters  (as  they  are  commonly  called)  have  been 
“ found  quite  corrupted,  ftrongly  fetid,  and  ex- 
“ tremely  fliarp,  while  the  fcetus,  except  the  in- 
“ juries  which  the  external  parts  received,  was 
“ well  and  found  ; witnefs  the  example  mentioned 
‘‘by  Bellinger,  of  a woman  who  was  cured 
“ of  a virulent  gonorrhoea  during  her  going  with 
“ child.  And  farther,  by  Malpigh.ius’s  delinea- 
“ tions  of  the  pullus  in  ovo,  it  appears  to  be  evi- 
“ dent  that  the  afitellus  ferves  the  fame  purpofe  as 
“ the  placenta  does  in  viviparous  animals,  to  con- 
“ vey  the  albumen  attenuated  by  incubation  into 
“ the  blood  velfels  of  the  chick,  and  that  none  of 
“ the  albumen  does  pafs  through  the  faccus  col- 
“ liquamenti.” 

Befides  thefe  coats,  in  a cow  and  many  other 
animals,  we  find  a membrane  called  alantois ; it 
is  inclofed  by  the  chorion  together  with  the  am- 
nion, and  contains  a quantity  of  water  which  it  re- 
ceives from  the  bladder  of  urine  by  the  urachus.  Its 
ufe  feems  to  be  to  contain  the  urine,  that  it  might 
not  by  the  common  pafTage  be  emptied  into  the  li- 
quor of  the  amnion,  of  which  the  foetus,  I am  in- 
clined to  think,  is  frequently  drinking. 

Whether  an  alantois  is  to  be  found  with  a hu- 
man foetus  or  no,  anatomifts  are  not  agreed,  and 
I cannot  give  my  opinion,  having  never  had  a 

fufficicnt 


FCETUS  in-UTERO. 


281 


fufficlent  opportunity  to  inquire.  But  furely  chil- 
dren having  an  urachus,  one  cannot  w^ell  doubt  of 
an  alantois.  I have  been  informed,  by  a gentleman, 
whofe  probity  I can  iufficiently  rely  on,  that  he 
had  feen  a child  that  had  no  external  genital  parts, 
and  made  water  through  the  navel.  At  Henley 
upon  Thames,  there  is  now  living  a bargeman’s 
child  about  ten  years  old,  of  which  I had  the  like 
account  ; but  upon  examination  I found  the  un- 
perforated  glans  with  its  fi;3enum  immediately  be- 
low the  place  of  the  navel,  and  the  urine  ilTued 
out  by  drops  between  this  and  the  belly,  in  the 
place  which  I fuppofe  was  the  navel,  but  it  was 
fo  much  excoriated,  that  I could  make  no  certain 
judgment  about  it.  In  the.  uterus  of  a cow  with 
two  calves,  I found  they  had  but  one  chorion, 
but  each  an  amnion  and  alantois  diftind; ; but  the 
cotyledons,  which  are  analogous  to  the  placenta  of 
the  human  foetus,  were  pretty  much  in  common  to 
the  umbilical  blood  veffels  of  both. 

The  placenta,  or  womb-liver,  is  a mafs  of 
blood  veffels  feated  on  the  outfide  of  the  chorion, 
being  compofed  of  the  extreme  branches  of  the 
umbilical  vein  and  arteries,  which  are,  for  the 
compofition  of  this  part,  divided  into  exceeding 
fmall  branches,  to  join  alike  number  of  the  men- 
flrual  veffels  of  the  uterus ; which  veffels  of  the 
uterus  are  made  numerous  rather  than  large,  that 
the  reparation  of  the  placenta  from  them  may  not 
be  attended  with  a flux  of  blood  fatal  to  the  mo- 

T ther ; 


F (E  T US  IN  U T E R a 


-2S2 

ther  ; for  the  fides  of  little  vefTels  foon  collapfc 
and  clofe,  and  they  are  more  eafily  flopped,  being 
comprefled  by  the  uterus  itfelf  as  it  flirinks,  which 
it  begins  to  do  from  the  time  of  the  birth  ; but 
when  the  placenta  is  feparated  before  the  delivery, 
whether  untimely  or  not,  thefe  veflels  bleed  until 
the  uterus  is  difcliarged  of  the  foetus.  The  figure 
of  the  placenta  is  circular,  and  at  its  greateft 
growth  about  twcr  inches  thick,  and  flx  or  feven 
in  diameter. 

The  arteries  and  veins  of  the  uterus  of  the  mo- 
ther, by  which  the  menflrual  purgations  are  made, 
are  joined  to  the  umbilieal  arteries  and  veins  in  the 
placenta  of  tlie  foetus,  the  arteries  of  the  uterus  to 
the  veins  in  the  placenta,  and  the  veins  in  the 
uterus  to  the  arteries  of  the  plaeenta : by  thefe 
velTels  a large  quantity  of  blood  is  continually 
fiowine  from  the  mother  to  the  foetus  and  back 

O 

again  ; but  for  what  end  fuch  a quantity  flows 
continually,  and  back  again,  I cannot  conceive, 
unlefs  it  is  that  the  foetus  not  breathing  for  itfelf, 
it  is  neceflary  that  as  mueh  blood  of  the  mother 
fliould  flow  continually  to  the  foetus,  as  can  leave 
enough  of  air,  or  whatever  our  blood  receives  in 
the  lungs,  for  the  foetus  ; and  perhaps  what  nutri- 
tious juices  the  foetus  receives,  require  a great  deal 
of  blood  to  convey  them,  they  being  but  a fmall 
part  of  the  blood.  And  though  the  blood  pafles 
fo  plentifully  between  the  mother  and  the  foetus, 
yet  the  communications  are  not  fo  obvious  as  they 

are 


FCETUS  IN  UTERO.  283 

are  between  the  arteries  and  veins  in  the  fame 
body ; which  makes  fome  think  the  communica- 
tion is  not  made  by  inofculations  of  veffels,  but  that 
the  foetus  is  nouriihed  from  the  placenta  in  a vege- 
table manner  ; but,  I own,  I am  not  of  this  opin- 
ion. The  navel-llring  or  umbilical  blood  veffels, 
between  the  placenta  and  the  navel,  are  about  two 
feet  long,  that  the  foetus  may  have  room  to  move 
without  tearing  the  placenta  from  the  uterus, 
which  being  done  too  foon,  from  whatever  caufe, 
occafions  a mifcarriage.  Thefe  veffels,  viz.  two 
arteries  and  one  vein,  twill  about  each  other,  par- 
ticularly the  arteries  about  the  vein,  and  are  con- 
tained in  one  common  coat  together  with  a veffel 
called  urachus,  which  arifes  from  the  top  of  the 
bladder  of  urine,  and  ends  in  the  membrana  alan- 
tois  ; the  umbilical  vein  goes  from  the  navel  di- 
red:ly  into  the  liver,  and  there  enters  the  great 
trunk  of  the  vena  porta:.  Near  which  entrance 
there  goes  out  the  dudlus  venofus  to  the  great 
trunk  of  the  cava,  which  carries  part  of  the  blood 
that  is  brought  by  the  umbilical  vein,  that  way 
into  the  cava,  while  the  reft  circulates  with  the 
blood  in  the  porta,  the  whole  of  it  not  palling 
through  the  dudus  venofus,  as  is  generally  believed, 
but  a great  part  of  it  into  branches  of  the  porta, 
in  the  liver,  otherwife  there  need  be  no  commu- 
nication between  the  umbilical  vein  and  the  porta. 
When  the  umbilical  vein  is  flopped,  it  becomes 
a ligament,  and  the  ductus  venofus  foon  fhrinks 
T 2 and 


284  FCETUS  IN  UTERO. 

and  almoft  difappears,  having  no  longer  any  blood 
flowing  through  it ; and  even  the  porta  itfelf 
within  the  liver,  from  w^hence  only  blood  could 
pafs  after  the  birth  into  the  diK^tus  venofus,  has* 
lefs  blood  flowing  through  it  for  fome  time  than- 
it  had  before  the  birth,  it  receiving  much  blood 
before  the  birth  from  the  umbilical  vein.  The 
blood  which  flows  from  the  mother  to  the  foetus- 
by  the  umbilical  vein,  is  returned,  all  but  a fmall 
quantity,  which  is  refer ved  for  nutrition  by  the 
twm  umbilical  arteries,  which  arife  from  the  inter- 
nal iliac  arteries,  and  pafling  by  the  outfides  of 
the  bladder  go  direftly  to  the  navel,  and  placen- 
ta ; thefe  with  the  urachus  being  fhrunk  up  after 
the  birth,  lofe  much  of  their  appearance,  efpecially 
near  the  navel,  where  they  are  fbmetimes  not  to 
be  diftinguifhed. 

Part  of  the  blood  before  the  birth,  and  not 
the  whole  quantity,  as  is  generally  thought,  which 
is  brought  by  the  afcending  cava  to  the  right  au- 
ricle, paifes  at  once  through  the  foramen  ovale  into 
the  left  auricle,  and  the  reft  flows  into  the  right 
ventricle  with  the  blood  of  the  defcending  cava, 
and  thence  into  the  pulmonary  artery,  where  about 
one  half  flov;s  into  the  luno;s,  and  the  other  half 
diredly  into  the  aorta  by  the  dud;us  arterioius, 
which  lies  between  the  pulmonary  artery  and  the 
aorta,  vrhich  after  the  birth  is  called  dudlus  ar- 
teriofus  in  ligamentum-  verfus.  The  better  to  ex- 
plain this  contrivance,  I will  call  the  quantity  of 

blood 


FCETUS  IN  UTERO. 


Wood  flowing  through  the  afcendlng  cava  in  a 
given  time,  four ; and  that  which  flows  through 
the  defcending  cava,  two  : then  let  two  of  the 
quantity  in  the  afcending  cava  flow  into  the  right 
auricle,  it  will  then  with  the  two  received  from 
tlie  defcending  cava  have  the  quantity  four  ; which 
-being  thrown  from  the  right  ventricle  into  the 
pqlmonary  artery,  the  quantity  two  is  thrown  into 
the  aorta  by  the  duffus  arteriofus,  and  the  fame 
quantity  into  the  lungs  by  the  pulmonary  branches  ; 
then  the  quantity  returning  from  the  lungs  to 
the  left  auricle,  will  be  two  in  the  fame  given 
time,  which  being  added  to  the  tv/o  which  flowed 
through  the  foramen  ovale,  in  the  fame  time 
there  will  be  conflantly  the  fame  proportions  re- 
ceived into  each  ventricle,  at  every  diaflole  of  the 
ventricles,  as  after  the  birth.  Now  if  the  blood, 
flowing  through  the  afcending  cava  joined  by  that 
from  the  umbilical  vein,  was  but  equal  to  that 
flowing  through  the  defcending,  let  each  of  them 
be  called  two  and  let  all  the  blood  of  the  afcend- 
ing cava  go  through  the  foramen  ovale ; then  the 
blood  which  the  left  ventricle  would  receive, 
would  exceed  that  which  flows  into  the  right,  by 
the  whole  quantity  which  flows  from  the  lungs 
in  the  fame  time  ; but  the  afcending  cava  convey- 
ing more  blood  than  the  defcending  ca.va,  the  ex- 
cefs  in  the  left  ventricle  would  be  yet  greater.  If 
the  proportions,  which  I have  taken  for  the  eafier 
computing,  were  perfectly  right,  as  I am  fure 

they 


286 


FGETUS  IN  UTERO. 


they  are  nearly,  then  the  quantity  flowing  into  the 
left  ventricle  would  be  to  that  flowing  into  the 
right  at  the  fame  time  as  five  to  two,  if  all  the  af- 
cending  blood  went  through  the  foramen  ovale. 

And  though  after  the  birth  the  left  ventricle  of 
the  heart  is  only  employed  in  throwing  blood  into 
the  aorta,  and  the  right  wholly  employed  in  cir- 
culating the  blood  through  the  lungs  ; yet  before 
the  birth,  all  the  blood  thrown  out  by  the  left  ven- 
tricle, and  about  half  the  blood  thrown  out  of 
the  right  ventricle,  being  thrown  into  the  aorta, 
and  the  other  part  only  through  the  lungs,  it  fol- 
lows, that  the  Vv^hole  force  exerted  by  the  left 
ventricle,  with  about  half  that  of  the  right,  is 
employed  in  throwing  blood  into  the  aorta,  while 
that  dilfributes  blood  through  the  whole  foetus 
and  to  the  mother  : but  after  the  birth,  when  the 
blood  is  to  be  no  longer  carried  from  the  foetus 
to  the  mother,  the  left  ventricle  becomes  fufficient 
for  the  circulation  through  tire  foetus,  and  a new 
occafion  immediately  arifes  for  that  additional 
power,  which  before  was  neceflarily  employed 
in  throwing  blood  into  the  aorta  ; for  the  whole 
mafs  of  blood  now  being  to  be  circulated  through 
the  lungs,  the  cludus  arteriofus  clofes,  and  the 
right  ventricle  mufl:  throw  all  the  blood  it  receives 
into  the  lungs,  there  being  no  longer  any  palfage 
into  the  aorta.  It  is  fuppofed  that  the  inflation  of 
the  lungs  at  the  birth,  prefently  alters  the  pofition 
of  the  ductus  arteriofus,  fo  as  to  obflrucl  it ; which 

account 


FCETUS  IN  UTERO.  287 

account  is  indeed  mechanical,  but,  I think,  not 
true,  becaufe  I can  neither  difcern  that  the  pofition 
of  this  veffel  is  altered,  nor  itc  furface  comprefied  : 
but  I rather  think  that  immediately  upon  the 
birth,  there  being  no  blood  carried  off  from  the 
foetus  to  the  mother,  and  the  left  ventricle  being 
fufhcient  to  fill  the  aorta  and  its  branches  with 
blood,  as  I have  fhewn  before,  there  is  no  longer 
room  for  any  blood  from  the  right  ventricle  ; 
wherefore  the  blood  from  the  right  ventricle  will 
be  forced  into  the  lungs,  where  the  paffage  is 
now  made  eafy,  as  I imagine,  by  their  being  in- 
flated ; and  the  duftus  arteriofus,  having  the  blood 
no  longer  forced  into  it,  fhrinks,  and  in  time  al- 
moft  difappears.  This  du£t  being  flopped,  the 
valve  of  the  foramen  ovale  foon  flops  that  paffage, 
it  being  on  the  fide  of  the  left  auricle  (or  that 
mufcular  bag,  which  is  the  largefl  part  of  that 
auricle)  which  being  much  the  flrongefl,  the  valve 
muft  be  preffed  more  on  that  fide  than  the  other, 
by  the  blood,  in  the  time  of  the  fyflole  of  the  au- 
ricle ; and  it  is  as  evident,  that  in  the  diaflole  of 
the  auricle,  there  mull  be  more  preffure  to  open 
that  than  the  right,  it  being  a flronger  mufcle, 
or  elfe  there  could  have  been  no  reafon  for  having 
the  left  auricle  flronger  than  the  right,  in  propor- 
tion to  their  ventricles.  Sometimes  this  valve  does 
not  quite  cover  the  foramen,  in  which  cafe  a fmall 
quantity  of  the  blood  may  poffibly  flow  from  the 
left  auricle  to  the  right,  and  fo  circulate  twice 

through 


288 


FCETUS  IN  UTERO. 


througlrthe  lungs  to  once  through  the  body,  but 
none  could  flow  from  the  right  to  the  left  and 
efcape  the  lungs,  which  might  be  of  bad  confe- 
quence.  Some  have  imagined,  that  men,  who 
have  this  paifage  open,  cannot  be  drowned ; but 
though  this  paflTage  is  fometimes  found  open,  no 
man  has  been  yet  feen,  that  we  have  ever  heard  of, 
that  could  not  be  drowned.  I have  feen  the  fo- 
ramen open  in  a man  that  was  hanged,  to  whom 
one  might  juftly  expeft  it  fliould  have  been  asufe- 
ful  as  in  ,the  cafe  of  fubmerfion  in  water.  Many 
writers  have  fuppofed,  that  this  foramen  is  open  in 
amphibious  animals,  and  in  fuch  fiflies  as  have 
two  auricles,  two  ventricles,  and  lungs  like  land 
animals,  without  gills,  which  in  other  fifh  are 
analogous  to  lungs.  I have  dlffedLed  a porpoife, 
Vvhich  is  of  this  kind,  and  found  this  foramen 
clofed,  but  the  great  veins  were  vafdy  large  in  pro- 
portion to  the  bulk  of  the  animal ; whence  I con- 
jedtured,  their  blood  was  accumulated  in  their 
veins,  while  they  kept  under  water,  and  by  that 
means  the  lungs  efcaped  being  oppreflTed  with 
blood  ; which  conjedlure  feemed  to  me  the  more 
probable,  fmce  all  animals  of  this  kind  are  able  to 
abide  the  leafl;  time  under  water,  when  their  blood 
is  mofl;  expanded  with  heat.  But  upon  the  dif- 
fedtion  of  an  otter,  Vvliofe  foramen  ovale  was  alfo 
clofed,  I found  the  veins  nothing  differing  from 
thofe  of  other  animals.  In  a water-tortoife,  which 
J had  an  opportunity  of  examining,  vrith  that 

mofl; 


F(ETUS  IN  UTERO. 


289 

mofl  dexterous  ?iud  indefatigable  anatoinifc,  Dr. 
Douglas,  I found  the  two  ventricles  of  the 
heart  but  half  divided  hj  a feptum,  and  in  the 
beginning  of  the  puhnonaiy  artery  feveral  ftrong 
mufciilar  rings,  a little  diftance  from,  each  other, 
each  of  which,  by  contradting,  would  be  capable 
of  refilling  a part  of  that  blood  which  otherwife 
would  have  been  thrown  into  the  lungs,  when 
they  were  under  water  ; and  this  blood  fo  ob- 
ftrudted  mull  necelTarily  be  thrown  into  the  aorta, 
the  two  ventricles  being  in  a manner  one  com- 
mon cavity ; and  when  they  are  out  of  the  water, 
this  communication  of  ventricles  will  fufFer  but 
little  confufion  of  the  blood  which  flows  into  the 
ventricles,  becaufe  each  ventricle  receiving  and 
difcharging  the  fame  quantity  of  blood,  at  the  fame 
time,  they  will  balance  each  other,  and  thereby 
fuch  a mixture  will  be  very  much  prevented. 
Mr.  Monro  obferves,  that  the  water-tortoife  has 
very  large  lungs,  confifliing  of  larger  veficles  than 
land  animals,  and  that  they  receive  a great  quan- 
tity of  air  to  furnifh  that  je  ne  fcai  quo!  fo  necef- 
fary  for  the  life  of  animals  ; the  fame  thing  I have 
obferved  in  frogs. 

As  to  the  reafon  of  women’s  bringing  forth  at 
the  ufual  time  ; it  has  been  faid,  that  at  that  time 
the  liead  of  the  child  begins  to  be  fpeciflcally  hea- 
vier than  the  rell  of  the  body,  and  therefore  mufl; 
fall  lowed  in  the  fluid  it  lies  in,  which  being  an 
nneafy  podure,  m;a.kes  the  child  druggie,  and 

bring 


Of  the  E Y E. 


290 

bring  on  the  labour.  But  it  is  not  true,  that  the 
head  then  alters  its  fpecific  gravity ; or,  if  it  did, 
there  is  feidom  fluid  enough  in  the  amnion  for  this 
purpofe  ; and  befides,  this  could  only  happen  right 
in  one  poffure,  and  would  ufually  happen  wrong 
in  brutes. 

# 

CHAP.  IV. 

Of  the  Eye. 

The  fig  ure,  fituation,  and  ufe  of  the  eyes, 
together  with  the  eye-brows,  eye-lafhes,  and 
eye-lids,  being  well  known,  I need  only  deferibe 
what  is  ufually  fhewn  by  difled:ing.  The  orbit 
of  the  eye,  or  cavity  in  which  it  is  contained, 
is  in  all  the  vacant  places  fllled  with  a loofe  fat, 
which  is  a proper  medium  for  the  eye  to  reft  in, 
and  ferves  as  a focket  for  it  to  be  moved  in.  In 
the  upper  and  outer  part  of  the  orbit,  is  feated  the 
lacrymal  gland.  Its  ufe  is  to  furnifli  at  all  times 
water  enough  to  wafh  off  duft,  and  to  keep  the 
outer  furface  of  the  eye  moift,  without  which 
the  tunica  cornea  would  be  lefs  pellucid,  and  the 
rays  of  light  would  be  difturbed  in  their  palfage ; 
and  that  this  liquor  may  be  rightly  difpofed  of.  We 
frequently  clofe  the  eye-lids  to  ipread  it  equally,  j 
even  when  we  are  not  confeious  of  doing  it.  At 
the  inner  corner  of  the  eye,  between  the  eye-lids, 

ftands 


Of  the  eye. 


291 

ftands  a caruncle,  which  feems  to  be  placed  to 
keep  that  corner  of  the  eye-lids  from  being  totally 
clofed,  that  any  tears  or  gummy  matter  may  flow 
from  under  the  eye-lids,  when  we  fleep,  or  into 
the  pundta  lacrymalia,  which  are  little  holes,  one 
in  each  eye-lid,  near  this  corner,  to  carry  oft'  into 
the  dudfus  ad  nafum  any  fuperfluous  tears. 

The  flrft;  membrane  of  the  eye  is  called  con- 
jundtiva  ; it  covers  fo  much  of  the  eye  as  is  called 
the  white,  and  being  refledfed  all  round,  it  lines 
the  two  eye-lids ; it  being  thus  returned  from  the 
eye  to  the  infide  of  the  eye-lids,  it  effedfually  hin- 
ders any  extraneous  bodies  from  getting  behind  the 
eye  into  the  orbit,  and  fmooths  the  parts  it  cov- 
ers, which  makes  the  fridtion  lefs  between  the  eye 
and  the  eye-lids.  This  coat  is  very  full  of  blood 
velfels,  as  appears  upon  any  inflammation. 

Tunica  ’fclerotis,  and  cornea,  make  together 
one  firm  cafe  of  a proper  form,  for  the  ufe 
of  the  other  coats  and  humours.  The  fore  part 
of  this  ftrong  coat  being  tranfparent,  and  like 
horn,  is  called  cornea,  and  the  reft  fclerotis.  Un- 
der the  cornea  lies  the  iris,  which  is  an  opaque 
mem'brane,  like  the  tunica  choroides,  but  of  dif- 
ferent colours  in  different  eyes,  fuch  as  the  eye 
; appears,  as  grey,  black,  or  hazel ; for  being  feat- 
1 ed  under  the  tunica  cornea,  it  gives  fuch  an  ap- 
I pearance  to  that  ^ it  has  itfelf.  The  middle  o 
: it  is  perforated  for  the  admiffion  of  the  rays  o 
! light,  and  is  called  the  pupil.  Immediately  under 
: the 


i 


►-i-i 


Of  the  eye. 


292 

the  iris  lie  the  prcceflus  clliares,  like  radial  lines 
from  a 1-effer  circle  to  a greater.  When  thefe  pro- 
celTes  contradt,  they  dilate  the  pupil  to  fuffer  more 
rays  of  light  to  enter  into  the  eye  ; and  the  con- 
trary is  done  by  the  circular  fibres  of  the  iris, 
which  adi  as  a fpliindter  mufcle  : but  thefe  changes 
are  not  made  with  great  quicknefs,  as  appears  from  ; 
the  eyes  being  opprefTed  v/ith  a flrong  light  for  ‘ 
fome  time,  after  we  come  out  of  a dark  place, 
and  from  the  contrary  effedt  in  going  fuddenly 
from  a light  place  to  a dark  one.  And  as  the  pu- 
pil always  dilates  in  darker  places,  to  receive  more  j 
rays  of  light,  fo  when  any  difeafe  makes  fome  of  |i 
thofe  rays  ineifedxual,  which  pafs  through  the  I 
pupil,  it  dilates  as  in  dark  places  to  admit  more  | 
light ; therefore  a dilated  pupil  is  a certain  fign  of  1 
a bad  eye,  and  this  may  be  difcerned  ufually  fooner  ! 
than  the  patient  difcerns  any  defedf  in  vifion.  In 
men  the  pupil  is  round,  which  fits  them  to  fee  1 
every  way  alike  ; it  is  alfo  round  in  animals  that 


rninivorous  brutes,  that  are  too  large  to  be  the  prey 
of  birds,  have  it  oblong  liorizontaUy,  wdiich  fits  , 
them  to  view  a large  fpace  upon  the  earth  ; while  I 
animals  of  the  ca.t  kind,  who  climb  trees  and  prey  | 
indifierently  on  birds  or  animals  that  hide  in  the  i| 
earth,  have  their  pupils  oblong  the  contrary  way,  ' 
v/hicli  fits  them  beft  to  look  upward  and  down- 
ward at  once.  Befides  thefe  there  are  other  ani- 
mals whcfe  pupils  are  in  thefe  forms,  but  in  lefs 

proportions. 


Of  the  E Y F. 


293 

1 proportions,  fb  as  beft  to  fit  their  ways  of  life. 

Immediately  under  the  fclerotis,  is  a membrane  of 
: little  firmnefs,  called  choroides.  In  mten  it  is  of 

j a rufty  dark  colour,  fuch  as  will  bury  almoft  all 
the  rays  of  light,  that  pafs  through  the  tunica 
retina,  which  if  it  were  of  a brighter  colour, 
would  refledl:  many  of  the  rays  upon  the  retina, 
and  make  a fecond  image  upon  the  firfl  fomewhat 
lefs,  and  lefs  diftinct,  but  both  together  ftronger ; 
v/hich  is  the  cafe  of  brutes  of  prey,  where  a great 
part  of  this  coat  is  perfectly  w’hite,  which  makes 
them  fee  bodies  of  all  colours  in  the  night  better 
than  men,  for  white  refiedts  all  colours  : but 
^ brutes  that  feed  only  on  grafs,  have  the  fame  parts*;, 
of  this  membrane  of  a bright  green,  which  enables 
them  alfo  to  fee  with  lefs  light,  and  makes  grafs 
an  objedt  that  they  can  difcern  with  greateft 
fii'ength.  • But  thefe  advantages  in  brutes  neceffa- 
rily  deftroy  great  accuracy  in  vifion,  which  is  of 
little  or  no  ufe  to  them,  but  to  men  of  great  confe- 
quence.  This  green  part  of  the  tunica  choroides 
in  animals  that  graze,  may  properly  be  called  mem- 
brana  uvea,  from  its  refemhlance  in  colour  to  an 
unripe  grape.  But  in  men’s  eyes  only  a white 
circle  round  the  back  fide  of  the  choroides  near  the 
cornea,  is  called  uvea. 

Immediately  under  the  tunica  choroides 
lies  the  tunica  retina,  v/hich  is  the  optic  nerve 
I expanded  and  co-extended  with  the  choroides. 

! Rays  of  light  ftriking  uoon  this  membrane,  the 
I fenfation 

I 


I 


Of  the  eye. 


294 

fenfation  is  conveyed  by  the  optic  nerves,  to  the 
coinmeii  fenlbrium  the  brain.  Thefe  nerves  do  not 
enter  at  the  middle  of  the  bottom  of  the  eyes, 
but  nearer  the  nofe  ; for  thofe  rays  of  light  being 
ineifeblual  for  vifion  that  fall  upon  the  entrance  of 
the  optic  nerves,  it  is  fit  they  fhould  fo  enter,  as 
that  the  fame  objed:  or  part  of  any  objed  fhould 
not  be  unperceived  in  both  eyes,  as  would  have 
been  the  cafe,  had  they  been  otherwife  inferred ; 
which  appears  from  a common  experiment  of  part 
of  an  objed  being  loft  to  one  eye,  when  we  are 
looking  towards  it  with  the  other  fhut.  I know 
a gentleman,  who  having  loft  one  eye  by  the  fmall- 
pox,  and  going  through  a hedge,  a thorn  unfeen 
(probably  from  this  caufe)  ftruck  the  other  and 
put  it  out.  The  two  optic  nerves,  foon  after  they 
arife  out  of  the  brain,  join,  and  feem  perfedly 
united ; yet  from  the  following  cafe  I am  not 
without  fufpicion  of  their  fibres  being  preferved 
diftind,  and  that  the  nerve  of  each  eye  arifes 
wholly  from  the  oppofite  fide  of  the  brain,  or 
elfe  that  the  other  nerves  throughout  the  body  arife 
from  the  brain,  and  medulla  oblongata,  on  the 
fides  oppofite  to  thofe  they  come  out  of.  A fol- 
dicr,  who  was  my  patient  in  the  hofpital  about 
five  years  fince,  had,  by  a pufh  with  a broad 
fword,  his  left  eye  raifed  in  the  orbit,  which  I 
replaced  with  my  fingers  ; it  was  prefently  follow- 
ed with  exceftive  pain  in  the  right  fide  of  the 
head  only  ; and  a lofs  of  the  fenfe  of  feeling  and 

motion 


Of  the  eye. 


295 

motion  In  both  the  right  limbs  ; the  fenie  of  feel- 
ing he  recovered  by  degrees  in  about  a month,  and 
foon  after  began  to  recover  their  motion,  but  wa& 
twelve  months  before  he  could  walk,  and  lift  up 
his  hand  to  his  head ; and  in  about  two  years  re- 
covered all  but  the  fight  of  the  wounded  eye, 
which  indeed  did  not  appear  perfe<ff.  In  fi£h 
thefe  nerves  arife  diftind;  from  the  oppofite  fides 
of  the  brain,  and  crofs  without  uniting ; but  as 
thefe  animals  have  their  eyes  fo  placed,  as  not  to 
fee  the  fame  object  with  both  eyes  at  once,  where- 
as animals,  whofe  optic  nerves  feem  to  unite,  do 
fee  the  fame  objed;  with  both  eyes  at  once,  one 
would  fufped  that  in  one  they  were  joined  to 
make  the  objed  not  appear  double,  and  in  the 
other  diftind,  to  make  their  two  eyes  (as  they  are 
to  view  different  objeds  at  the  fame  time)  inde- 
pendent on  each  other : and  yet  from  the  follow- 
ing cafes,  the  feeing  objeds  fmgle  feems  not  to 
depend  upon  any  fuch  union,  nor  from  the  light 
ftriking  upon  correfponding  fibres  of  the  nerves, 
as  others  have  believed,  but  upon  a judgment  from 
experience,  all  objeds  appearing  fmgle  to  both 
eyes  in  the  manner  we  are  mofl  ufed  to  obferve 
them,  but  in  other  cafes  double ; for  though  we 
have  a diftind  image  from  each  eye  fent  to  the 
brain,  yet  while  both  thefe  images  are  of  an  ob- 
jed  feen  in  one  and  the  fame  place,  we  conceive 
of  them  as  one  ; fo  when  one  image  appears  to 
the  eyes  (when  they  are  diftorted  or  wrong  di- 

reded) 


Of  the  eye. 


f 


rcd;ed)  In  twa  different  places,  it  gives  the  idea  of 
tM"0  ; and  when  two  bodies  are  feen  in  one  place, 
as  two  candles  rightly  placed^  through  one  hole 
in  a board,  they  appear  one.  But  cafes  of  this 
kind  being  too  numerous,  I will  conclude  with 
one  very  remarkable,  and,  I think,  much  in  favour 
of  this  opinion.  A gentleman,  who  from  a blow 
on  the  head  had  one  eye  diflorted,  found  every 
objedl  appear  double,  but  by  degrees,  the  moft  fa- 
miliar ones  became  fmgle,  and  in  time,  all  objedls 
became  fo,  without  any  amendment  of  the  diflor- 
ticn. 

The  infide  of  the  eye  is  filled  with  three  hu- 
mours, called  aqueous,  cryftalline,  and  vitreous. 
The  aqueous  lies  foremoft,  and  feems  chiefly  of 
ufe  to  prevent  the  cryftalline  from  being  eafily 
bruifed  by  rubbing,  or  a blow;  and  perhaps  it 
ferves  for  the  cryftalline  humour  to  move  forward 
in,  while  we  view  near  objeds,  and  backward  for 
remoter  objeds ; without  which  mechanifm,  or, 
in  the  place  of  it,  a greater  convexity  in  the  cryftal- 
line humour  in  the  former  cafe;  and  a lefs  con- 
vexity in  the  latter,  I do  not  imagine,  according 
to  the  laws  of  optics,  how  v\^e  could  fo  diftindly  fee 
objeds  at  different  diftances.  However  it  is  in 
land-animals,  I think  we  may  plainly  fee  that 
fifli  move  their  cryftalline  humour  nearer  the  bot- 
.tom  of  the  eye  when  they  are  out  of  water,  and 
the  contrary  way  in  water  ; becaule  light  is  lefs 


reiradcd  from  water  through  the  cryftalline  hu- 


mour 


Of  the  eye.  297 

moTir  than  from  air.  Some  have  faid,  that  am- 
phibious animals  have  a membrane  like  the  mem- 
brana  nidHtans  of  birds,  which  ferves  them  as  a 
lens  in  the  water.  I have  examined  the  eye  of  a 
crocodile,  which  Sir  Hans  Sloan  kept  in  fpir- 
its,  and  I found  this  membrane  equally  thick 
and  denfe,  and  confequently  unfit  for  this  pur- 
pofe,  or,  I believe,  any  other,  except  that  obvious 
one,  of  defending  the  eye  from  the  water.  Next 
behind  the  aqueous  humour  lies  the  cryflalline  ; its 
fhape  is  a deprefied  fpheroid,  it  is  diftindlly  con- 
tained in  a very  fine  membrane  called  aranea. 
The  ufe  of  this  humour  is  to  refradt  the  rays  of 
light  which  pafs  through  it,  fo  that  each  pencil  of 
rays  from  the  fame  point  of  any  objecf  may  be 
united  upon  the  retina,  as  in  a camera  obfcura, 
to  make  the  flronger  impreffion ; and  though  by 
this  union  of  the  rays  a pidlure  inverted -is  made 
upon  the  retina,  yet  furely  it  is  the  impulfe  only 
of  the  rays  upon  the  retina  that  is  the  caufe  of 
vifion  ; for  had  the  colour  of  the  retina  been  black, 
and  confequently  unfit  to  receive  fuch  a picture, 
would  not  the  impulfe  of  light  upon  it  have  been 
fufncient  for  vifion  ? or  would  fuch  a pidfure,  if 
it  could  have  been  made  without  any  impulfe, 
have  ever  conveyed  any  fenfation  to  the  brain  ? 
Then  if  the  impulfe  of  light  upon  the  retina,  and 
not  the  image  upon  the  retina,  is  the  caufe  of  vi- 
fion ; when  we  inquire  why  an  image  inverted  in 
th^  eye  appears  otherwife  to  the  mind,  might 

U 


we 


Of  the  E Y E. 


298 

we  not  expert  to  find  the  true  caufe  from  confid- 
ering  the  diredtions  in  which  the  rays  ftrike  the 
retina,  as  we  judge  of  above  and  below  from  a 
like  experience,  when  any  thing  ftrikes  upon  any 
part  of  our  bodies  ? Neverthelefs,  in  viewing  an 
objedl  through  a lens,  we  conceive  of  it  as  in- 
verted ; when  as  in  receiving  the  impulfes  of  light 
in  the  fame  manner,  and  having  the  picture  on 
the  retina  in  the  fame  attitude,  when  we  ftand 
on  our  heads  without  the  lens,  we  have  not 
the  fame,  but  the  contrary  idea  of  the  pofition  of 
the  object.  Though  I have  confidered  this  hu- 
mour only  as  a refractor  of  light,  yet  the  firfi;  and 
greateft  refradion  is  undoubtedly  made  in  the  cor- 
nea ; but  it  being  concavo-convex,  like  glafles  of 
that  kind,  while  one  fide  makes  the  rays  of  light 
converge,  the  other  diverges  them  again.  The 
fame  thing  alfo  may  be  obferved  of  the  aqueous 
hummur,  which  is  indeed  more  concave  than  con- 
vex ; but  when  the  cryftalline  humour  is  removed 
in  the  couching  a catarad:,  the  aqueous  pofl'efles  its 
place  and  becomes  a lens  ; but  that  refrading  light 
lefs  than  the  cryfiaHine,  v/hofe  place  and  fliape  it 
partly  takes,  the  patient  needs  a convex  glafs  to 
fee  accurately.  In  fome  eyes,  either  this  humour 
being  too  convex  or  too  diftant  from  the  retina, 
the  rays  unite  too  foon,  unlefs  the  objed  is  held 
very  near  to  the  eye,  which  fault  is  remediable 
by  a concave  glafs  5 as  the  contrary  fault,  common 
to  old  perfons,  is  by  a convex  glafs.  If  the  eye 

liad 


Of  the  eye.  299 

had  been  formed  for  a nearer  view,  the  object 
would  often  obftruft  the  light  ; if  it  had  been 
much  farther,  light  enough  would  not  commonly 
have  been  produced  from  the  objed:  to  the  eye. 
In  fifh  the  cryftalline  humour  feems  a perfed 
fphere,  which  is  neceflary  for  them,  becaufe  light 
being  lefs  refraded  from  water  through  the  cryf- 
talline humour  tlian  from  air,  that  defed  is  com- 
penfated  by  a more  convex  lens.  The  vitreous 
humour  lies  behind  the  cryftalline,  and  fills  up  the 
greateft  part  of  the  eye  : its  fore  fide  is  concave 
for  the  cryftalline  humour  to  lodge  in,  and  its 
back  fide  being  convex,  the  tunica  retina  is  fpread 
over  it ; it  ferves  as  a medium  to  keep  the  cryftal- 
line humour  and  the  retina  at  a due  diftance. 

The  larger  animals  having  larger  eyes,  their 
organs  of  vifion,  like  a microfcope  with  a large 
lens,  are  fit  to  take  in  a greater  view,  but  in  that 
view  things  are  not  fo  much  magnified ; in  leffer 
animals  a fmall  fpace  is  difcerned,  fuch  as  is  their 
fphere  of  adion,  but  that  greatly  magnified,  not 
really  fo  in  either  cafe,  but  comparatively,  for 
vlfion  fhews  not  the  real  magnitude  of  objeds, 
but  their  proportions  one  to  another.  Fifh  have 
their  eyes,  and  particularly  their  pupils,  larger 
than  land  animals,  becaufe  there  is  lefs  light,  and 
that  not  fo  far  diftributed  in  water  as  in  the  air. 
In  all  inflammations  in  the  eye,  the  utmoft  hafte 
fhould  be  made,,  by  bleeding,  purging,  abftinence, 
&c.  to  get  rid  of  the  inflammation,  becaufe  a con- 
U 2 tinued 


Of  the  EYE. 


300 

tinned  inflammation  feldom  fails  to  make  white 
opaque  fears  in  the  cornea,  which  caiife  dimnefs 
if  not  blindnefs  ; and  no  eye-water  with  powders 
in  it  fhould  ever  be  put  upon  the  eye,  becaufe 
none  can  be  made  fine  enough. 

/ 

An  account  of  ohfervations  made  by  a young  gentle- 
man vjho  ‘ivas  horn  blind^  or  lof  bis  fight  fo  early 
that  he  had  no  remembrance  of  ever  having  feen^ 
and  was  couched  between  thirteen  and  fourteen 
years  of  age. 

THOUGH  we  fay  of  this  gentleman  that  he 
was  blind,  as  v/e  do  of  all  people  who  have  ripe 
cataraGs,  yet  they  ?tre  mever  fo  blind  from  that 
caufe  but  that  they  can  difeern  day  from  night, 
and  for  the  moft  part,  in  a flrong  light,  diftinguifli 
black,  white,  and  fcarlet ; but  they  cannot  per- 
ceive the  fhape  of  any  thing ; for  the  light,  by 
which  thefe  perceptions  are  made,  being  let  in  ob- 
liquely through  the  aqueous  humour,  or  the  ante- 
rior furface  of  the  cryftalline,  by  which  the  rays 
cannot  be  brought  into  a focus  upon  the  retina, 
they  can  difeern  in  no  other  manner,  than  a found 
eye  can  through  a glafs  of  broken  jelly,  where  a 
great  variety  of  furfaces  fo  differently  refraU  the 
light,  that  the  feveral  diftindl;  pencils  of  rays  can- 
not be  colleUed  by  the  eye  into  their  proper  foci  ; 
wherefore  the  fhape  of  an  objedt  in  fuch  a cafe 
cannot  be  at  all  difeerned,  though  the  colour  may : 

And 


Of  the  eye. 


301 

And  thus  it  was  with  this  young  gentleman,  who, 
though  he  knew  thefe  colours  afunder  in  a good 
light,  yet  when  he  faw  them  after  he  was 
couched,  the  faint  ideas  he  had  of  them  before, 
were  not  fufficient  for  him  to  know  them  by  after- 
v\rards,  and  therefore  he  did  not  think  ^hem  the 
fame  which  he  had  before  known  by  tliofe  names. 
Now  fcarlet  he  thought  the  moft  beautiful  of  all 
colours,  and  of  others  the  moft  gay  were  the  moft 
pleafmg ; whereas  the  ftrft  time  he  faw  black  it, 
gave  him  great  uneafmefs,  yet  after  a little  time  he 
was  reconciled  to  it ; but  fome  months  after,  fee- 
ing by  accident  a negro  woman,  he  was  ftmck 
with  great  horror  at  the  fight. 

When  he  firft  faw,  he  was  fo  far  from  mak- 
ing any  judgment  about  diftances,  that  he  thought 
all  objects  whatever  touched  his  eyes  (as  he  ex- 
prefled  it)  as  what  he  felt  did  his  fkin,  and  thought 
no  objedls  fo  agreeable  as  thofe  which  were  finooth 
and  regular,  though  he  could  form  no  judgment 
of  their  fhape,  or  guefs  what  it  was  in  any  objedt 
that  was  pleafmg  to  him  : He  knew  not  the  fhape 
of  any  thing,  nor  any  one  thing  from  another, 
however  'different  in  fhape  or  magnitude ; but 
upon  being  told  what  things  v.^ere,  whofe  form 
he  before  knew  from  feeling,  he  would  carefully 
obferve,  that  he  might  know  them  again  ; but 
having  too  many  objedls  to  learn  at  once,  he  for- 
got many  of  them  ; and  (as  he  faid)  at  firft  he 
learned  to  knov/,  and  again  forgot  a thoufand 

things 


Of  the  eye. 


302 

things  in  a day.  One  particular  only,  though  it 
may  appear  trifling,  I will  relate  : Having  often 
forgot  which  was  the  cat,  and  which  the  dog,  he 
was  afhamed  to  afk  ; but  catching  the  cat,  which 
he  knew  by  feeling,  he  was  obferved  to  look  at 
her  ftedfaflly,  and  then,  fetting  her  down,  faid, 
So,  pufs,  I fhall  know  you  another  time.  He  was 
very  much  furprifed,  that  thofe  things  which  he 
had  liked  heft,  did  not  appear  moil  agreeable  to 
his  eyes,  expecting  thofe  perfons  would  appear 
moft  beautiful  that  he  loved  moft,  and  fuch  things 
to  be  moft  agreeable  to  his  fight  that  were  fo  to 
his  tafte.  We  thought  he  foon  knew  what  pic- 
tures reprefented,  which  were  flrewed  to  him, 
but  we  found  afterv^rards  we  were  miftaken  ; for 
about  two  months  after  he  was  couched,  he  dif- 
covered  at  once  they  reprefented  folid  bodies, 
vchen  to  that  time  he  confidered  them  only  as 
party-coloured  planes,  or  furfaces  diverfined  with 
variety  of  paint ; but  even  then  he  was  no  lefs 
furprifed,  expecbing  the  pictures  would  feel  like 
the  things  they  reprefented,  and  was  amazed 
when  he  found  thofe  parts,  v\^hich  by  their  light 
and  fhadow  appeared  now  round  and  uneven,  felt 
only  flat  like  the  reft,  and  alked  which  was  the  ly- 
ing fenfe,  feeling,  or  feeing  ? 

Being  ftiewn  his  father’s  picture  in  a locket 
at  his  mother’s  v,'atch,  and  told  what  it  was,  he 
acknowledged  a likenefs,  but  was  vaftly  furprifed  ; 
afking,  how  it  could  be,  that  a large  face  could 

be 


Of  the  eye. 


303 

be  cxpreffed  in  fo  little  room  ; faying,  it  fhould 
have  feemed  as  impoffible  to  him,  as  to  put  a 
bufhel  of  any  thing  into  a pint. 

At  lirft,  he  could  bear  but  very  little  light,  and 
the  things  he  faw  he  thought  extremely  large  ; 
but  upon  feeing  things  larger,  thofe  lirft  feen  he 
conceived  lefs,  never  being  able  to  imagine  any 
lines  beyond  the  bounds  he  faw ; the  room  he 
was  in,  he  faid,  he  knew  to  be  but  part  of  the 
houfe,  yet  he  could  not  conceive  that  the  whole 
houfe  coiild  look  bigger.  Before  he  was  couched, 
he  expeded  little  advantage  from  feeing,  worth 
undergoing  an  operation  for,  except  reading  and 
■writing ; for  he  faid,  he  thought  he  could  have 
no  more  pleafure  in  v/.alking  abroad  then  he  had 
in  the  garden,  which  he  could  do  fafely  and  read- 
ily. And  even  blindnefs,  he  obferved,  had  this 
advantage,  that  he  could  go  any  where  in  the  dark, 
much  better  than  thofe  who  can  fee  ; and  after 
he  had  feen,  he  did  not  foon  lofe  this  quality,  nor 
defire  a light  to  go  about  the  houfe  in  the  night. 
He  faid,  every  new  obje<ft  w^as  a new  delight ; and 
the  pleafure  was  fo  great,  that  he  wanted  words  to 
exprefs  it ; but  his  gratitude  to  his  operator  he 
could  not  conceal,  never  feeing  him  for  fome  time 
without  tears  of  joy  in  his  eyes,  and  other  marks 
of  affedion  .:  And  if  he  did  not  happen  to  come 
at  any  time  when  he  was  expeded,  he  would  be 
fo  grieved,  that  he  could  not  forbear  crying  at  his 
difappointnient.  A year  after  lirft  feeing,  being 

carried 


Of  the  ear. 


304 

carried  upon  Epfom  Downs,  and  obferving  a large 
profpedt,  he  was  exLeedingly  delighted  with  it, 
and  called  it  a new  kind  of  feeing.  And  now 
being  lately  couched  of  his  other  eye,  he  fays, 
that  objeds  at  firft  appeared  large  to  this  eye,  but 
not  fo  large  as  they  did  at  hrft  to  the  other  ; and 
looking  upon  the  fame  objed  with  both  eyes,  he 
thought  it  looked  about  twice  as  large  as  with 
the  iirft  couched  eye  only,  but  not  double,  that 
we  can  any  ways  difcover. 

I have  couched  feverai  others  who  were  born 
blind,  whofe  obfervations  were  of  the  fame  kind  ; 
but  they  being  younger,  none  of  them  gave  fo 
full  an  account  as  this  gentleman. 


CHAP.  V. 

Of  the  Ear, 

1 HE  figure  and  fitiiation  of  the  outer  ear  needs 
no  defcription.  Its  inner  lubfiance  is  cartilage, 
which-  preferves  its  form  v/ithout  being  liable 
to  break.  Its  ufe  is  to  colied  founds,  and  dired 
them  into  the  meatus  aiiditorius,  which  is  the 
paffage  that  leads  to  the  drum  ; this  paffage  is  lined 
with  a elandular  membrane,  in  v/hich  alfo  is  fome 
hair  ; the  cerumen  ■which  is  feparated  by  thefe 
glands,  being  fpread  all  over  this  membrane,  and 
its  hairs,  ferve  to  defend  the  membrane  from  the 

. outer 


Of  the  ear. 


305 

outer  air,  and  to  entangle  any  infed:  that  might 
otherwife  get  into  the  ear.  Sometimes  this  wax 
being  feparated  in  too  great  quantity,  it  fills  up 
the  paflage  and  caufes  deafnefs  ; and  thofe  great 
difcharges  of  matter  from  the  meatus  auditorius, 
which  are  commonly  called  impofihumes  in  the 
ear,  I think,  can  be  nothing  elfe  but  ulcerations,  or 
great  fecretions  from  thefe  glands.  At  the  farther 
end  of  the  meatus  auditorius  lies  the  membrana  tym- 
pani,  which  is  extended  upon  a bony  ridge  almofi; 
circular.  Its  fituation  in  men  and  brutes  is  nearly 
horizontal,  inclined  towards  the  meatus  auditorius, 
which  is  the  heft  pofition  to  receive  founds  ; a great 
part  of  them  being  ordinarily  reverberated  from 
the  earth.  In  men  and  brutes  it  is  concave  out- 
ward, but  in  birds  it  is  convex  outward,  fo  as  to 
make  the  upper  fide  of  it  nearly  perpendicular  to 
the  horizon,  which  feems  fitter  to  hear  each  other’s 
founds  when  they  are  high  in  the  air,  where  they 
can  receive  but  little  reverberated  found.  This 
membrane  does  not  entirely  clofe  the  paffage,  but 
has  on  one  fide  a fmall  aperture  covered  with  a 
valve.  I found  it  once  half  open  in  a man  that  I 
diiTedled,  who  had  not  been  deaf  ; and  I have  feen 
a man  fmoak  a whole  pipe  of  tobacco  out  through 
his  ears,  which  mufi;  go  from  the  mouth  through 
the  euftachian  tube,  and  through  the  tympanum  ; 
yet  this  man  heard  perfedlly  well.  Thefe  cafes  oc- 
cafioned  me  to  break  the  tympanum  in  both  ears 
of  a dog,  and  it  did  not  deftroy  his  hearing,  but  for 

feme 


Of  the  ear. 


306 

fome  time  he  received  ftrong  founds  with  great 
horror.  Mr.  St.  Andre  has  affured  me,  that  a 
patient  of  his  had  the  tympanum  deftroyed  by  an 
ulcer,  and  the  auditory  bones  caft  out,  without  de- 
flroying  his  hearing.  From  thefe,  and  other  like 
cafes,  it  may  be  concluded,  that  the  membrana  tym- 
pani,  though  ufeful  in  hearing,  is  not  the  feat  of 
that  fenfe ; and  if  any  difeafe  in  that  membrane 
fhould  obftru<3;  the  palfage  of  founds  to  the  inter- 
nal parts  of  the  ear,  which  are  the  feat  of  that 
fenfe,  an  artificial  palfage  through  that  membrane 
might  recover  hearing,  as  the  removing  the  cryftal- 
line  humour,  when  that  obftrufts  the  light,  recov- 
ers fight.  Some  years  fince  a malefadfor  was  par- 
doned on  condition  that  he  fiilfered  this  experim.ent, 
but  he  falling  ill  of  a fever,  the  operation  was  de- 
ferred, during  which  time  there  was  fo  great  a 
public  clamour  raifed  againft  it  that  it  was  afterwards 
thought  fit  to  be  forbid.  In  very  young  children 
I have  always  found  this  membrane  covered  with 

J 

mucus,  which  feems  necelfary  to  prevent  founds 
from  afledting  them  too  much,  there  being  no  pro- 
viiion  to  lliut  the  ears,  as  there  is  for  the  eyes.  A 
gentleman  well  known  in  this  city,  having  had 
four  children  born  deaf,  was  advifed  to  lay  blifters 
upon  the  heads  of  the  next  children  he  might  have, 
wliich  he  did  to  three  which  were  borrl  afterward, 
and  every  one  of  tliein  heard  well.  It  feems  not 
unreafonable  to  fuppofe  that  too  great  a quantity  of 
this  mucus  upon  the  drum  might  be  the  caufe  of 

deafnefs 


Of  THE  EAR. 


307 

deafnefs  in  the  four  children,  and  that  the  difcharge 
made  by  the  blifters  in  the  latter  cafes  was  the  caufe 
of  their  efcaping  the  fame  misfortune. 

Into  the  middle  of  the  tympanum  is  extended 
a fmall  bone  called  malleus,  whofe  other  end  is 
articulated  to  a bone  called  incus,  which  is  alfo  ar- 
ticulated by  the  intervention  of  an  exceeding  fmall 
one,  called  orbiculare,  to  a fourth  bone  called  Ra- 
pes. Thefe  bones  are  contained  in  that  cavity  be- 
hind the  tympanum,  which  is  called  the  barrel  of 
the  ear  ; but  fome  anatomifts  call  the  barrel  only 
tympanum,  and  the  membrane  membrana  tympa- 
ni.  The  malleus  being  moved  inward  by  the  muf- 
culus  obliquus  internus,  or  trochlearis,  it  extends 
the  tympanum  that  it  may  be  the  more  alfe<3;ed  by 
impulfe  of  founds  when  they  are  too  weak.  This 
mufcle  rifes  from  the  cartilaginous  part  of  the  eu- 
ftachian  tube,  and  palling  from  thence  in  a proper 
groove,  it  is  reflected  under  a fmall  procefs,  and 
thence  palfes  on  perpendicular  to  the  tympanum, 
to  be  inferted  into  the  handle  of  the  malleus, 
fometimes  with  a double  tendon.  Parallel  to  this 
mufcle  lies  another  extenfor  of  the  tympanum, 
called  obliquus  externus ; it  arifes  from  the  outer 
and  upper  part  of  the  euftachian  tube,  and  palling 
through  the  fame  hole  with  the  chorda  tympani, 
which  is  a branch  of  the  fifth  pair  of  nerves,  it  is 
inferted  into  a long  procefs  of  the  malleus : This 
is  not  fo  obvioully  an  extenfor  as  to  be  known 
to  be  fo  without  an  experiment.  The  m.ufcle 

which 


3o8  Or  THE  EAR. 

which  relaxes  this  membrane  is  called  extemus 
tympani  ; it  arifes  from  the  upper  part  of  the  au- 
ditory paflage,  under  the  membrane  which  lines 
that  paffage,  and  is  inferted  into  the  upper  procefs 
of  the  malleus.  The  relaxation  of  the  tympanum 
is  made  by  this  mufcle,  without  our  knowledge, 
when  founds  are  too  ftrong  ; and  as  the  pupil  of  ! 
the  eye  is  contra<Ted  when  we  have  too  much  j 
light,  and  dilated  when  there  is  too  little,  from 
what  caufe  foever,  fo  when  founds  are  too  low, 
or  the  fenfe  of  hearing  imperfeT,  from  whatever  I 
caufe,  the  extenfors  of  the  tympanum  ftretch  it  to 
make  the  impuife  of  founds  more  effectual  upon  i 
it,  juft  as  in  the  cafe  of  the  common  drum,  and  | 
the  chords  of  any  mufical  inftrument.  From  the  I 
cavity  behind  the  tympanum,  vrhich  is  called  the 
barrel  of  the  ear,  goes  the  euftachian  tube,  or 
iter  ad  palatum ; it  ends  cartilaginous  behind  the 
palate.  This  paflage  feems  to  be  exadlly  of  the 
fame  tife  with  the  hole  in  the  fide  of  the  common 
drum,  that  is,  to  let  the  air  pafs  in  and  out  from  j 
the  barrel  of  the  ear  to  make  the  membrane  vibrate 
the  better,  and  perhaps  in  the  ear,  which  is  clofer 
than  a common  drum,  to  let  air  in  or  out  as  it  ' 

alters  in  denfity  ; and  if  any  fluid  Ihould  be  fepa-  i 

rated  in  the  barrel  of  the  ear,  to  give  it  a paflage 
out.  This  paffage  being  obftruded,  as  it  is  fome- 
times,  by  a large  polypus  behind  the  uvula,  it  | 
caufes  great  difnculty  of  hearing,  and  fometimes, 
when  the  meatus  auditcrius  is  obftruded,  a man  j 

opening  j 


Of  the  ear. 


309 

opening  his  mouth  wide,  will  hear  pretty  well 
through  this  pafiage,  which  is  often  fo  open,  as 
that  fyringing  water  through  the  nofe,  it  Ihall  pafs 
through  into  the  barrel  of  the  ear,  and  caufe  deaf- 
nefs  for  fome  time.  If  any  one  would  try  how 
he  can  hear  this  way,  let  him  (lop  his  ears,  and 
take  between  his  teeth  the  end  of  a wire,  or  chord 
that  will  vibrate  v^^ell,  and  holding  the  other  end, 
ftrike  it,  and  the  found  that  he  hears  will  be 
through  this  paffage.  To  the  ftapes  there  is  one 
mufcle,  called  mufcuius  flapedis  ; it  lies  in  a long 
channel,  and  ending  in  the  ftapes,  it  ferves  to  pull 
the  ftapes  off  of  the  feneftra  ovalis,  which  other- 
wife  it  covers.  Befides  the  feneftra  ovalis,  there 
is  another  near  it,  fomewhat  lefs,  called  rotunda ; 
thefe  two  holes  lead  to  a cavity  called  veftibulum, 
which  leads  into  other  cavities  aptly  called  cochlea, 
and  three  femicircular  canals,  or  all  together  the 
labyrinth,  in  which  are  fpread  the  auditory  nerves', 
to  receive  and  convey  the  impulfe  of  founds  to 
the  common  fenforiura  the  brain ; and  furely  the 
chorda  tympani,  which  is  a branch  of  the  fifth 
pair  of  nerves,  may  alfo  convey  thefe  fenfations 
to  the  brain.  The  two  holes,  called  feneftra  ovalis 
and  rotunda,  are  clofed  with  a fine  membrane,  like 
the  membrane  called  the  drum,  and  the  larger 
being  occafionally  covered  and  uncovered  by  the 
ftapes,  founds  are  thereby  made  to  influence  more 
or  lefs,  as  beft  ferves  for  hearing  ; and  this  advan- 
tage being  added  to  that  of  a lax  or  tenfe  tympa- 
num, 


310  SENSES  OF  SMELLING, 

mim,  the  efFe£t  of  founds  may  be  greatly  increafed 
or  leffened  upon  the  auditory  nerves,  expanded  in 
the  labyrinth.  In  the  ftrongeft  founds,  the  tympa- 
num may  be  lax,  and  the  feneftra  ovalis  covered  ; 
and  for  the  loweft,  the  tympanum  tenfe  and  the 
feneftra  uncovered.  If  founds  propagated  in  the 
ear  were  heard  lefs,  we  might  often  be  in  danger 
before  we  were  apprized  of  it  ; and  if  the  organs  of 
hearing  were  much  more  perfed,  unlefs  our  un- 
derftandings  were  fo  too,  we  fhould  commonly  hear 
more  things  at  once  than  we  could  attend  to. 

I 

CHAP.  VI. 

Of  the  Senses  of  Smelling,  Tasting,  and 
Feeling. 

The  fenfe  of  fmelling  is  made  by  the  efftuvia, 
which  are  conveyed  by  the  air  to  the  nerves, 
ending  in  the  membranes  which  line  the  nofe  and 
its  lamellae.  In  men  thefe  lamells  are  few,  and 
the  pafiage  through  the  nofe  not  difficult ; hence 
fewer  effluvia  will  ftrike  the  nerves,  than  in  ani- " 
mals  of  m.ore  exquifite  fmell,  whofe  nofes  being 
full  of  lamellce,  and  the  paflage  for  the  air  narrow 
and  crooked,  few  of  the  effluvia  efcape  one  place 
or  another  ; befides,  their  olfadory  nerves  may  be 
m.ore  fenftble.  Fiffi,  though  they  have  no  nofes, 
'yet  in  their  mouths  they  may  tafte  effluvia  in  the 
Vv^ater,  as  ftirely  thofe  nfh  do,  who  fcek  their  prey 

in 


TASTING,  AND  FEELING.  311 

in  the  darkeft  nights,  and  in  great  depths  of  water, 
there  being  more  nerves  difpofed  in  their  mouths 
than  through  their  whole  bodies  befide,  the  optic 
excepted  ; and  it  feems  as  if  it  was  done  for  this 
purpofe ; for  the  mere  fenfe  of  tailing  is  ordinari- 
ly lefs  curious  in  them  than  in  land  animals  j 
in  baiting  eel-balkets,  if  the  bait  has  lain  long  in 
I water,  it  is  feldom  followed ; but  upon  fcarifying 
I it  afrelh,  which  will  make  it  emit  new  effluvia, 
it  ferves  as  a frelh  bait.  The  fenfe  of  tailing  is 
made  in  the  like  manner  upon  the  nerves  which 
line  the  mouth,  as  is  that  of  feeling  upon  the  nerves 
dillributed  throughout  the  body ; of  which  I Ihould 
fpeak  more  in  this  place,  if  I had  not  done  it  al- 
ready in  the  chapter  of  the  nerves. 


TAB. 


( 312  ) 


TAB.  XXXI. 


1 The  under  fide  of  the  bladder. 

2 The  ureters. 

3 Vafa  deferentia. 

4 Veficulse  feminaies. 

5 The  proftate  gland. 

6 Meatus  urinarius. 

7 A tranfverfe  fedion  of  the  corpora  cavernofa 


■ 'urethrse,  and  that  of  the  penis. 

1 2 The  corpora  cavernofa  penis  divided  by  the 


penis. 

8  Corpus  cavernofum  urethra. 


Jfeptum  between  the  corpus  cavernofum 


feptum. 

13  Corpus  cavernofum  glandis. 


TAB. 


TAB.  XXXC. 


) 


r 


TAB.  XXXIX 


( 313  ) 


TAB.  XXXIL 

1 That  fide  of  the  uterus  which  is  next  the  gut. 

2 The  fallopian  tubes. 

3 The  fimbria. 

4 Ovaria. 

5 The  mouth  of  the  uterus. 

6 Ligamenta  rotunda. 

7 The  infide  of  the  vagina. 

8 The  orifice  of  the  meatus  urinarius. 

9 The  glans  clitoridis. 

10  The  external  labia  of  the  vagina. 

1 1 The  nymphse,  which  are  continued  from  the 

prseputium  clitoridis. 


W 


TAB. 


{ 3H  ) 


TAB.  XXXIII. 

The  parts  of  an  hermaphrodite  negro,  which  was 
neither  fex  perfect,  but  a wonderful  mixture  of 
both.  This  perfon  was  twenty-fix  years  of 
age,  and  in  fhape  perfedlly  male. 

1 A clitoris,  when  eredted,  almoft  as  large  as  a 

penis. 

2 The  glands  of  the  clitoris. 

3 Labia,  or  a divided  fcrotum  j in  w^hich  were 

perfedt  tefticles  with  all  the  velfels. 

4 Nymphse. 

5 The  entrance  into  the  vagina,  where  were 

carunculse  myrtiformes. 

6 Furca  virginis. 

The  lower  figure  reprefents  another  her- 
maphrodite, whofe  fhape  was  rather  female 
than  male,  but  too  young  to  have  female 
breafts,  or  a beard,  like  a male,  upon  the 
face. 

7 The  glans  clitoridis. 

8 Nymphse. 

9 Labia  with  teflicles  in  them,  divaricated  to 

Ihew  the  parts  between,  but  in  their  natural 
fituation  very  like  the  other,  as  the  other 
when  divaricated  I'efembled  this. 

I o The  entrance  into  the  vagina. 

I I Furca  virginis. 


TAB. 


TAB.JC-XXirr 


TAB.XXXIV 


( 315  ) 


TAB.  XXXIV. 

1 The  right  ventricle  of  a foetus  diftended  with 

wax. 

2 The  right  auricle. 

5  The  left  auricle. 

4 Branches  of  the  pulmonary  veins  of  the  right 

lobe  of  the  lungs, 4hofe  of  the  left  being  cut 
off  fhort. 

5 The  arteries  of  the  left  lobe  of  the  lungs. 

6 The  vena  cava  defcendens. 

7 Aorta  afcendens. 

8 Arteria  pulmonalis. 

9 Dudtus  arteriofus. 

I o The  under  fide  of  a heart  of  a younger  foetus. 

I I The  right  auricle  cut  open. 

1 2 The  cava  defcendens  cut  open. 

13  Tuberculurn  Loweri. 

14  The  foramen  ovale  clofed  with  its  valve. 

15  The  mouth  of  the  coronary  veins. 

16  The  umbilical  vein. 

1 7 Branches  of  the  vena  porta  in  the  liver. 

1 8 Duftus  venofus. 

1 9 Branches  of  the  cava  in  the  liver. 

20  Vena  cava. 


\V  2 


TAB, 


( 3^6  ) 


, TAB.  XXXV. 

1 A crofs  for  an  object. 

2 The  objedt  reprefented  on  the  retina  at  the 

bottom  of  each  eye. 

3 The  entrance  of  the  optic  nerves,  in  which 

place  no  object  is  reprefented. 

4 Cones,  within  which  all  objects  placed  are  dark 

to  each  eye,  the  rays  from  thence  falling  upon 
the  entrance  of  the  optic  nerves  ; but  that 
which  falls  upon  the  entrance  of  the  optic 
nerve  in  one  eye,  can  never  fall  upon  the  optic 
nerve  in  the  other. 

5 Pencils  of  rays  from  points  of  the  objedl  pajfhng 

through  the  cryftalline  humour,  where  they 
converge,  to  meet  in  a point  on  the  retina  to 
form  vifion. 


TAB. 


TAB  .XX  XV. 


T.  j it 


\ 


•> 


:vV* 

!>'•  { 


( 317  ) 


TAB.  XXXVI. 

1 A knife  pafled  through  the  tunica  fclerotis,  un- 

der the  cornea  before  the  iris,  in  order  to  cut 
an  artificial  pupil  where  the  natural  one  is 
clofed.  This  operation  I have  performed 
feveral  times,  with  good  fuccefs  ; indeed  it 
cannot  fail  when  the  operation  is  well  done, 
and  the  eye  no  otherwife  difeafed,  which  is 
more  than  can  be  faid  for  couching  a cataradt. 
In  this  operation  great  care  muft  be  taken  to 
hold  open  the  eye~l*,ds  without  prelfing  upon 
the  eye,  for  if  the  aqueous  humour  is  fqueez- 
ed  out  before  the  incifion  is  made  in  the  iris, 
the  eye  grows  flaccid,  and  renders  the  opera- 
tion difficult. 

2 A crooked  needle  palTed  through  a proptofis 

of  the  cornea  ; the  black  line  in  the  cornea 
inclofes  the  piece  to  be  cut  out  with  a knife. 
The  operation  being  thus  done,  the  cryftal- 
line  humour  immediately  falls  out  j and  in  a 
few  days  the  lips  of  the  wound  unite.  This 
operation  is  very  ufeful,  and  attended  with 
but  little  pain.  I have  done  the  fame  thing 
when  the  whole  eye  has  been  fo  enlarged 
that  the  eye-lids  could  not  be  doled,  which 
has  funk  the  eye  in  the  head but  this  ope- 
ration was  attended  with  fuch  violent  pain 
that  I cannot  much  recommend  it. 


3  Shews 


'{  3i8  ) 

3 Shews  how  an  opaque  fear  upon  the  cornea, 

by  obftru£ting  part  of  each  pencil  of  rays, 
makes  a dimnefs  of  fight  without  a total  lofs. 

4 Shews  how  a cataraft  or  obftrudion  of  the 

cryftalline  humour  will  obftrudt  the  light 
which  is  before  it.  And  how  fome  lide- 
light  may  pafs  to  the  retina  through  the 
aqueous  humour,  but  not  being  brought  into 
a focus  gives  only  a fenfe  of  light  without 
vifion. 


TAB.  AXAVn. 


( 3^9  ) 


TAB.  XXXVII. 

I A bone  taken  out  from  the  firft  procefs  of  the 
dura  mater  not  far  from  the  crifta  galli. 

■2  A bone  taken  out  of  the  m.ufcular  part  of  the 
heart  of  a man. 

3 The  under  fide  of  a bone  taken  out  of  a jfrac- 

tured  fculL 

4 The  upper  fide  of  a bone  from  the  fame  fcull, 
where  the  operation  of  the  trepan  had  been 
thrice  made.  This  girl  was  brought  into  the 
hofpital  a week  after  the  accident.  I im- 
mediately opened  the  fcalp,  and  let  out  about 
two  ounces  of  grumous  blood,  and  laid  the 
fcull  bare  about  four  inches  one  way,  and 
three  the  other,  and  tied  the  blood  velfels, 
that  I might  make  the  operation  without 
much  difficulty  foon  after.  The  fradlure 
extended  acrofs  the  os  bregmatis  from  the 
fagittal  future  to  the  temporal  bone ; that 
part  next  the  os  fronds  was  depreffed  equal 
to  its  thicknefs,  and  a great  deal  of  extrava- 
fated  blood,  and  fome  matter,  lay  under  the 
other  part  of  the  fame  bone.  I made  two 
perforations  with  the  trephine,  clofe  to  the 
fracture,  that  I might  raife  it  up  fteadily 
through  both,  and  have  more  room  for  the 
extravafated  blood  to  difeharge  from  under 
the  fcull,  which  had  difeharged  before  in 

great 


( 320  ) 

great  quantity  through  the  fradlure.  But 
neverthelefs,  ten  days  after  the  former  opera-^ 
tion,  I was  obliged  to  make  another  perfora- 
tion to  difcharge  the  matter  more  freely  ; for, 
during  a month,  the  matter  ran  through  all 
her  drelTmgs  down  her  face  twice  every  day, 
and  was  exceedingly  fetid,  and  for  the  fpace 
of  three  months  the  matter  decreafed  very 
little  in  quantity,  but  grew  lefs  and  lefs  of- 
fenfive.  September  the  thirteenth,  the  leaft 
of  the  bones  was  taken  out  ; and  on  Sep* 
tember  the  twenty-ninth,  the  large  one ; 
after  which  time  the  matter  was  good,  and 
not  too  much  in  quantity.  Each  of  thefe 
bones  is  through  both  tables,  for  the  motion 
in  the  brain  was  feen,  only  fome  little  parts 
of  the  lelTer  bone  remaining,  a callus  was 
formed  from  them ; but  where  the  great  one 
came  away  there  was  no  callus,  only  a com- 
mon cicatrix ; and  befides  thefe,  many  little 
bits  of  bone  came  away  in  the  drellings : She 
was  foon  after  cured,  and  has  remained  weP 
many  years. 


TAB. 


( 321  ) 


T A B.  XXXVIII. 

The  figure  of  Samuel  Wood,  a miller,  whofe 
arm  with  the  fcapula  was  torn  off  from  his 
body,  by  a rope  winding  round  it,  the  other 
end  being  fattened  to  the  coggs  of  a mill. 
This  happened  in  the  year  1737.  The  veffels 
being  thus  ftretched  bled  very  little,  the  arte- 
ries and  nerves  were  drawn  out  of  the  arm ; 
the  furgeon  who  was  firtt  called  placed  them 
within  the  wound,  and  dreffed  it  fuperficially. 
The  next  day  he  was  put  under  Mr.  Ferne’s 
care,  at  St,  Thomas’s  hofpital,  but  he  did  not 
remove  the  dreffings  for  fome  days.  The  pa- 
tient had  no  fevere  fymptoms,  and  the  wound 
was  cured  by  fuperficial  dreffings  only,  the  nat- 
ural fkin  being  left  almoft  fufficient  to  cover 
it ; which  ffiould  in  all  cafes  be  done  as  much  as 
may  be.  About  twenty  years  fince,  I introduced 
the  method  of  amputating,  by  firtt  dividing  the 
fkin  and  membrana  adipofa,  lower  than  the  place 
where  the  operation  was  to  be  finittied,  the  ad- 
vantages of  which  are  now  fufficiently  known, 

1 The  end  of  the  clavicle. 

2 The  cicatrix. 

3 The  fubfcapularis  mufcle. 

4 The  cubit  broke  in  two  places. 


T A B. 


( 322  ) 


TAB.  XXXIX. 

Reprefents  the  cafe  of  John  Heysham,  who, 
the  Friday  before  Eafter,  in  the  year  1721,  by 
overftraining  himfelf  at  work,  had  a rupture 
of  the  inteftines  into  the  ferotum,  which  could 
by  no  means  be  reduced.  He  was  brought 
into  St.  Thomas’s  hofpital  the  Monday  follow- 
ing, and  I would  have  performed  the  operation 
immediately,  but  he  refufmg  to  fubmit,  it  was 
deferred  till  Tuefday  morning,  when,  he  be- 
ing willing,  I performed  the  operation,  and 
making  a large  wound  in  the  bottom  of  the 
abdomen,  the  inteftines  were  eafily  reduced, 
and  near  a quart  of  water  was  difeharged  out 
of  the  ferotum  at  the  fame  time.  There  had 
been  a rupture  of  the  omentum  before,  which 
being  united  to  the  ferotum  and  fpermatic  vef- 
fels,  I pafled  a needle  with  a double  ligature 
(as  is  expreiTed  in  the  plate)  under  that  part 
of  the  omentum  that  adhered,  fo  as  not  to 
hurt  the  fpermatic  veflels ; then  cutting  out 
the  needle,  I tied  one  of  the  firings  over  the 
upper  part  of  the  omentum,  and  the  other 
over  the  lower,  and  then  cut  off  as  much  of 
it  as  was  in  the  way.  My  reafon  for  tying  in 
this  manner  was  to  fecure  the  blood  veflels, 
which,  I think,  could  not  be  done  fo  well 
with  one  ligature,  becaufe  of  the  largenefs  of 

the 


TAB.  XXXIX 


I‘.  J22 


'* . ? 


( 3^3  ) 

the  adhefion  and  the  texture  of  the  omentum, 
which  renders  it  too  liable  to  be  torn  by  fuch 
a bandage.  Three  days  after  the  operation  an 
eryfipelas  began  in  his  legs,  and  fpread  all  over 
his  body,  the  cuticle  every  where  peeling  off ; 
yet  he  recovered,  and  continues  in  a good  ftate 
of  health.  After  he  was  cured,  at  firft  he  wore 
a fmall  trufs,  but  left  it  off  in  a Ihort  time, 
and  now  feels  no  inconvenience  from  it,  though 
he  lives  by  hard  laboiirp 


TAB. 


{ 324  ) 


TAB,  XL, 

The  cafe  of  Margaret  White,  the  wife  of 
John  White,  a penfioner  in  the  Fifhmongers 
alms-hoiifes  at  Newington  in  Suriy.  In  the 
fiftieth  year  of  her  age,  fhe  had  a rupture  at 
her  navel,  which  continued  till  her  feventy- 
third  year,  when,  after  a fit  of  the  cholic,  it 
mortified,  and  fhe  being  prefently  after  taken 
with  a vomiting,  it  burft.  I went  to  her,  and 
found  her  in  this  condition,  with  about  fix  and 
twenty  inches  and  a half  of  the  gut  hanging 
out,  mortified.  I took  away  what  was  morti- 
fied, and  left  the  end  of  the  found  gut  hanging 
out  at  the  navel,  to  which  it  afterwards  ad- 
hered ; fhe  recovered,  and  lived  many  years 
after,  voiding  the  excrements  through  the  in- 
tefiine  at  the  navel ; and  though  the  ulcer  was 
fo  large,  after  the  mortification  feparated,  that 
the  breadth  of  two  guts  was  feen ; yet  they 
never  at  any  time  protruded  out  at  the  wound, 
though  fhe  was  taken  out  of  her  bed,  and  fat  up 
every  day. 

1 The  gut. 

2 The  cicatrix  of  the  wound. 


CHAP. 


TAB. XL 


J2,4. 


> 


( 325  ) 

CHAP.  VI. 

A SHORT  Historical  Account  of  Cut^ 
TING  FOR  the  StONE. 

The  moft  ancient  way  of  cutting  for  the 
ftone  is  that  defcribed  by  Celsus,  which 
was  indeed  cutting  upon  the  gripe,  but  in  a very 
different  manner  from  that  operation  in  later  ages^ 
for  he  directs  a lunated  incifion  with  the  horns 
towards  the  coccyges,  which  was  plainly  that  the 
gut  might  be  preffed  downwards  to  avoid  wound- 
ing it,  and  then  a tranfverfe  incifion  upon  the 
ftone  might  be  made  fafely,  but  not  in  very  young 
children,  for  want  of  room,  nor  after  puberty, 
for  then  the  proftats  are  too  large  to  allow  of 
this  operation  ; therefore  they  did  not  ufually  cut 
any  younger  than  nine  years,  nor  older  than  four- 
teen. Afterwards,  but  when  we  know  not,  this 
operation  was  improved  by  cutting  lower,  and  on 
one  fide,  which  is  the  operation  now  called  cutting 
on  the  gripe,  or  with  the  leffer.  apparatus. 

In  the  year  1524,  Marianos  publifhed  the 
method  of  cutting  by  the  greater  apparatus,  now 
commonly  called  the  old  way,  but  he  owns  it  was 
invented  by  his  mafter  Johannes  de  Romanis. 

In  the  year  1697,  Jacques  came  to 

Paris,  full  of  reputation  for  the  fuccefs  of  his  new 
operation  for  the  ftone  ; he  foon  obtained  leave  to 
cut  in  the  hofpitals,  where  great  numbers  of  his 

patients 


326  CUTTING  for  the  STONE. 

patients  dying,  and  being  differed,  they  were 
found  with  their  bladders  cut  through,  guts 
wounded,  &c.  which  brought  the  operation  into 
difgrace,  as  Mery  and  Dionis  have  related,  who 
faw  thefe  things.  They  fay  he  performed  the  ope- 
ration without  any  direction,  and  without  any 
knowledge  of  the  parts  he  was  to  cut ; a thing  not 
to  be  mentioned  without  horror  ! But  of  late  his 
character  has  been  fet  in  a very  different  light ; 
and  though  it  is  more  than  probable  he  himfelf 
knew  not  what  he  did,  yet  there  are  now,  who  pre- 
tend to  tell  us  exactly  ; though  if  their  teftimonies 
are  to  be  regarded,  who  faw  him  operate,  there  is 
no  place  that  he  did  not  cut  one  time  or  other,  and 
therefore  he  may  have  a fort  of  right  to  be  called 
the  inventor  of  any  operation  for  the  ftone  that  can 
ever  be  performed  in  thefe  parts.  It  is  alfo  owned 
that  he  fometimes  had  great  fuccefs,  which  was 
enough  to  put  others  of  that  nation  upon  trying  of 
it  in  a more  judicious  manner ; but  if  there  were 
fuch,  failing  of  fuccefs,  they  have  concealed  their 
experiments. 

Mr,  PvAU  of  Amflerdam,  who  faw  F.  Jacqtjes 
operate,  profeffed  to  do  his  operation  with  the 
neceiTary  improvement  of  a grooved  ftaff,  vrhich  if 
Jacques  ever  ufed,  he  furely  learned  that  of 
Rau.  He  fucceeded  wonderfully  ; and  if  he,  who 
was  an  excellent  anatomiil,  may  be  allowed  to 
underhand  his  own  operation,  it  was  diredtly  into 
the  bladder,  without  wounding  either  the  urethra 

or 


CUTTING  FOR  THE  STONE.  327 

or  the  proftates  : befides  this,  other  competent 
judges,  who  were  witnefies  to  his  operations,  have 
bore  the  fame  teftimonj. 

In  the  year  1717-18,^  Dodcr  James  Doug- 
lass, in  a paper  prefented  to  the  Royal  Society,, 
demonftrated  from  the  anatomy  of  the  parts,  that 
the  high  operation  for  the  ftone  might  be  prac- 
tifed  ; which  had  been  once  performed  by  Franco 
injudicioufly,  and  by  him  difrecommended,  though 
his  patient  recovered ; and  afterwards  ftrongly 
recommended,  but  not  pradifed  by  Rosset.  Yet 
no  one  undertook  it,  till  his  brother,  Mr.  John 
Douglass,  about  three  years  after,  performed  it, 
and  with  great  applaufe,  his  two  firft  patients  re- 
covering. Soon  after,  a furgeon  of  St.  Thomas’s 
hofpital  cut  two,  who  both  recovered  ; but  the 
fame  gentleman  afterwards  cutting  two,  who  mif- 
carried  by  the  cutting  or  burfting  of  the  peritonse- 
um,  fo  that  the  guts  appeared,  this  way  imme- 
diately became  as  much  decried  as  it  was  before 
commended  ; upon  which  the  furgeons  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew’s hofpital,  who  had  prepared  to  perform 
this  operation,  altered  their  refolution,  and  v^^ent 
on  in  the  old  way.  The  next  feafon,  it  being  my 
turn  in  St.  Thomas’s,  I refumed  the  high  way, 
and  cutting  nine  with  fuccefs,  it  came  again  in 
vogue ; after  that  every  .lithotomift  of  both  hof- 
pitals  pradifed  it  ; but  the  peritonseum  being 
often  cut  or  burft  twice  in  my  pradice,  though 
feme  of  thefe  recovered,  and  fometimes  the 

bladder 


328  CUTTING  FOR  THE  STONE. 

bladder  itfelf  was  burft,  from  injecting  too  much 
Avater,  which  generally  proved  fatal  in  a day  or 
two.  Another  inconvenience  attended  every  ope-< 
ration  of  this  kind,  which  was,  that  the  urine’s 
lying  continually  in  the  wound  retarded  the  cure, 
but  then  it  was  never  followed  with  an  inconti- 
nence of  urine.  What  the  fuccefs  of  the  feveral 
operators  was,  I will  not  take  the  liberty  to  pub- 
lifh  ; but  for  my  own,  exclufive  of  the  two  before 
mentioned,  I loft  no  more  than  one  in  feven, 
which  is  more  than  any  one  elfe  that  I know  of 
could  fay ; whereas  in  the  old  way,  even  at  Paris, 
from  a fair  calculation  of  above  800  patients,  it 
appears  that  near  two  in  five  died.  And  though 
this  operation  came  into  univerfal  difcredit,  I muft 
declare  it  my  opinion,  that  it  is  much  better  than 
the  old  way,  to  which  they  all  returned,  except 
myfelf,  who  would  not  have  left  the  high  way 
but  for  the  hopes  I had  of  a better  ; being  well 
aflured,  that  it  might  hereafter  be  pradtifed  with 
greater  fuccefs  ; thefe  fatal  accidents  having  pret- 
ty well  fhewn  how  much  water  might  be  injedl- 
ed,  and  how  large  the  wound  might  fafely  be 
made.  But  hearing  of  the  great  fiaccefs  of  Mr. 
Rau,  profeflbr  of  anatomy  at  Leyden,  I deter- 
mined to  try,  though  not  in  his  manner,  to  cut 
diredly  into  the  bladder ; and  as' his  operation  was 
an  improvement  of  Friar  Jacques,  I endeavoured 
to  improve  upon  him,  by  filling  the  bladder,  as 
Douglass  had  done  in  the  high  way,  with  water, 

leaving 


CUTTING  FOR  THE  STONE.  329 

leaving  the  catheter  in,  and  then  cutting  on  the 
outfide  of  the  catheter  into  the  bladder,  in  the 
fame  place  as  upon  the  gripe,  which  I could  do 
Very  readily,  and  take  out  a ftone  of  any  fize  with 
more  eafe  than  in  any  other  way.  My  patients, 
for  fome  days  after  the  operation,  feemed  out  of 
danger ; but  the  urine  which  came  out  of  the 
bladder  continually  lodging  upon  the  cellular 
membrane  on  the  outfide  of  the  redlum,  made 
foetid  ulcers,  attended  with  a vaft  difcharge  of 
ftinking  matter  ; and  from  this  caufe  I loft  four 
patients  out  of  ten.  The  cafe  of  one  which  efcaped 
was  very  remarkable  ; a few  days  after  he  was 
cut,  he  was  feized  with  a great  pain  in  his  back 
and  legs,  with  very  little  power  to  move  them  ; 
upon  which  he  turned  upon  his  face,  and  refted 
aimoft  conftantly  upon  his  knees  and  elbows  above 
a fortnight  together,  having  no  eafe  in  any  other 
pofture  all  that  while  ; at  length  his  urine  coming 
all  the  right  way,  his  wound  foon  healed,  and  he 
recovered  the  ufe  of  his  back  and  limbs.  I think 
all  thefe  fevere  fymptoms  could  proceed  from  no 
other  caufe  than  the  urine  and  matter  fomehow 
offending  the  great  nerves  ; which  come  out  of 
the  os  facrum  to  go  to  the  lower  limbs.  I then 
tried  to  cut  into  the  bladder,  in  the  fame  manner 
that  Mr.  Rau  was  commonly  reported  to  do,  but 
there  had  the  fame  inconvenience  from  the  urine’s 
lodging  upon  the  cellular  memxbrane  on  the  out- 
fide of  the  inteftiiium  redum.  Upon  thefe  dif- 
X appointments, 


530  CUTTING  for  the  STONE. 

appointments,  I contrived  the  manner  of  cutting^, 
which  is  now  called  the  lateral  way.  This  ope- 
ration I do  in  the  following  manner  : I tie  the 
patient  as  for  the  greater  apparatus,  but  lay  him. 
upon  a blanket  feveral  doubles  upon  an  horizontal' 
table  three  foot  high,  with  his  head  only  raifed.,- 
I firft  make  as  long  an  incifion  as  I can,  beginning 
near  the  place  where  the  old  operation  ends,  and 
cutting  down  between  the  muTculus  accelerator 
urinse,  and  ereUor  penis,  and  by  the  fide  of  the 
inteftinum.  reUum  : I then  feel  for  the  half, 

holding  down  the  gut  all  the  while  with  one  or 
two  fingers  of  my  left  hand,  and  cut  upon  it  in: 
that  part  of  the  urethra  which  lies  beyond  the 
corpora  cavernofa  urethrae,  and  in  the  proftate 
gland,  cutting  from  below  upwards,  to  avoid 
wounding  the  gut  ; and  then  paffing  the  gorget 
very  carefully  in  the  groove  of  the  ftalF  Into  the 
bladder,  bear  the  point  of  the  gorget  hard  againft 
the  ftaff,  obferving  all  the  while  that  they  do^ 
not  feparate,  and  let  the  gorget  hip  to  the  out- 
fide  of  the  bladder  ; then  I pafs  the  forceps  into 
the  right  fide  of  the  bladder,  the  wound  being 
on  the  left  fide  of  the  perinaeum  ; and  as  they 
pafs,  carefully  attend  to  their  entering  the  blad- 
der, which  is  knovrn  by  their  overcoming  a ftralt- 
nefs  which  there  will  be  in  the  place  of  the  wound  ; 
then  taking  care  to  pufn  them  no  farther,  that 
the  bladder  may  not  be  hurt,  I hrft  feel  for  the 
hone  with  the  end  of  them,  which  having  felt, 

I onen 

A 


CUTTING  FOR  THE  STONE.  331 

1 open  the  forceps  and  Hide  one  blade  underneath 
it,  and  the  other  at  top  ; and  if  I apprehend  the 
ftone  is  not  in  the  right  place  of  the  forceps,  I 
fhift  it  before  I offer  to  extract,  and  then  extract 
it  very  deliberately,  that  it  may  not  flip  fuddenly 
out  of  the  forceps,  and  that  the  parts  of  the 
wound  may  have  time  to  ftretch,  taking  great 
care  not  to  gripe  it  fo  hard  as  to  break  it,  and  if 
I find  the  ftone  very  large,  I again  cut  upon  it  as 
it  is  held  in  the  forceps.  Here  I muft  take  notice, 
it  is  very  convenient  to  have  the  bladder  empty 
of  urine  before  the  operation,  for,  if  there  is  any 
quantity  to  flow  out  of  the  bladder  at  the  pafling 
in  of  the  gorget,  the  bladder  does  not  contract 
but  collapfe  into  folds,  which  makes  it  difhcult  to 
lay  hold  of  the  ftone  without  hurting  the  blad- 
der ; but  if  the  bladder  is  contracted,  it  is  fo  eafy 
to  lay  hold  of  it,  that  I have  never  been  delayed 
one  moment,  unlefs  the  ftone  was  very  fmall. 
Laftly,  I tie  the  blood  veflels  by  the  help  of  a 
crooked  needle,  and  ufe  no  other  drefling  than  a 
little  bit  of  lint  befmeared  with  blood,  that  it  may 
not  ftick  too  long  in  the  wound,  and  all  the  dreff- 
ings  during  the  cure  are  very  flight,  almoft  fuper- 
ficial,  and  without  any  bandage  to  retain  them ; 
becaufe  that  will  be  wetted  with  urine,  and  gall 
the  fkin.  At  firft  I keep  the  patient  veiy  cool  to 
prevent  bleeding,  and  fometimes  apply  a rag  dipt 
in  cold  tvater,  to  the  wound,  and  to  the  genital 
parts,  which  I have  found  very  ufeful  in  hot 
X 2 weather 


CUTTING  FOR  THE  STONE. 


33'2 

v/eather  particularly.  In  children  it  is  often  alohi^ 
fufEcient  to  flop  the  bleeding,  and  always  helpful 
in  men.  The  day  before  the  operation,  I give  a 
purge  to  empty  the  guts,  and  never  negled;  to 
give  fome  laxative  medicine  or  clyfler  a few  days 
after,  if  the  belly  is  at  all  t-enfe,  or  if  they  have 
not  a natural  ftooL  What  moved  me  to  try  this 
way,  if  I may  be  allowed  to  know  my  own 
thoughts,  was  the  confideration  of  women  fcarce 
ever  dying  of  this  operation  ; from  which  I con- 
cluded, that  if  I cotild  cut  into  the  urethra,  beyond 
the  corpora  cavernofa  urethrte,  the  operation 
vrould  be  nearly  as  fafe  In  men  as  women. 

What  fliccefs  I have  had  in  my  private  practice 
I have  kept  no  account  of,  becaufe  I had  no  in- 
tention to  publilh  it,  that  not  being  fulEciently  wit- 
nelTed.  Publickly  in  St.  Thomas’^s  hofpital  I have 
cut  two  hundred  and  thirteen ; of  the  flrft  fifty, 
only  three  died  ; of  the  fecond  fifty,  three  ; of  the 
third  fifty,  eight  j and  of  the  laft  fixty-three,  fix. 
Several  of  thefe  patients  liad  the  fmall-pox  during 
their  cure,  fome  of  whom  died,  but  I think  not 
more  in  proportion  than  what  uiually  die  of  that 
diftemper ; thefe  are  not  reckoned  among  thofe 
who  died  of  the,  operation.  The  reafon  why  fo 
few  died  in  the  two  firft  fifties  was,  at  that  time 
few  very  bad  cafes  offered  ; in  the  third,  the  ope- 
ration being  in  high  requefi,  even  the  raoft  aged 
and  mofi:  miferable  cafes  expefted  to  be  faved  by 
it ; befides,  at  that  time,  I made  the  operation 

lower. 


CUTTING  FOR  THE  STONE.  333 


lower,  in  hopes  of  improving  it,  but  found  I 
was  miftaken.  But  what  is  of  mod  confe- 
quence  to  be  known  is  the  ages  of  thofe  who  re- 
covered, and  thofe  who  died.  Of  thefe,  under 
ten  years  of  age  one  hundred  and  Eve  were  cut, 
three  died  ; between  ten  and  twenty,  fixty-two 
cut,  four  died  ; twenty  and  thirty,  twelve  cut, 
three  died ; thirty  and  forty,  ten  cut,  tv/o  died  j 
forty  and  fifty,  ten  cut,  two  died ; fifty  and 
fixty,  feven  cut,  four  died  ; fixty  and  feventy, 
five  cut,  one  died  ; between  feventy  and  eighty, 
two  cut,  one  died.  Of  thofe  who  recovered  the 
three  biggeft  ftones  were  | xii,  x^,  and  viii,  and 
the  greateft  number  of  ftones  in  any  one  perfon 
was  thirty-three.  One  of  the  three  that  died  out 
of  the  hundred  and  five,  was  very  ill  with  a 
whooping-cough ; another  bled  to  death  by  an 
artery  into  the  bladder,  it  being  very  hot  weather 
at  that  time  : But  this  accident  taught  me  after- 
wards, wlienever  a velfel  bled  that  I could  not 
find,  to  dilate  the  wound  with  a knife,  till  I 
could  fee  it.  Now  if  Jacques  or  others,  who 
of  late  have  been  faid  to  have  performed  this 
operation,  whether  by  defign  or  chance,  did  not 
take  care  to  fecure  the  blood  veflels,  which  as 
yet  has  not  been  fuppofed,  whatever  their  dexter- 
ity in  operating  might  be,  their  fuccefs  at  leaft 
can  be  no  fecret,  for  many  of  their  children  and 
moft  of  their  men  patients  muft  have  bled  to 
death.  If  I have  any  reputation  in  this  'way, 

I have 


334  CUTTING  for  the  STONE. 

I have  earned  it  dearly,  for  no  one  ever  endured  more 
anxiety  and  ficknefs  before  an  operation,  yet  from 
the  time  I began  to  operate,  all  uneafinefs  ceafed  ; 
and  if  I have  had  better  fuccefs  than  fome  others, 
I do  not  impute  it  to  more  knowledge,  but  to  the 
happinefs  of  a mind  that  was  never  ruffled  or  dif- 
concerted,  and  a hand  that  never  trembled  during 
any  operation. 


» * 


INDEX. 


INDEX, 


A Page 

,/\.DIPOSE  membrane  - - - - 137 

• — - its  difeafes  - 138 

Alantois  280 

Amnion  - ~ - - - - - 278 

does  its  liquor  ferve  as  nourifhment  ? 

Amputation,  how  is  the  circulation  kept  up  after 

it  ? - 203 

occahoned,  and  proving  fatal  from  the 

cramp  - - - - - - 207 

— — in  mortifications  ought  to  fucceed  the 

feparation  - _ _ _ „ 20S 

Anafarca  - - - - - - 130 

Anchylojis,  how  formed  . _ „ _ 8 

Aneurifm  - - - . - - 187 

Animal  body,  what  ■■■=-«  i 

■ its  conftituent  parts  - - 2, 

Animals,  why  larger  have  flower  pulfes,  and  lefs 

vigour  in  motion  _ _ „ = 20Q 

why  inaftive  ones  require  lefs  food,  and 

are  not  fo  fuddenly  deftroyed  by  wounds  207 

Antra.  Vide  Sinus  maxilla  fup. 

Aorta,  frequently  oflified  near  the  heart  = 182 

its  valves  covered  with  chalk  - = 182 

preternaturally  diflended  - - 182 

traced  - - - - - - 183 

Aqueous  humour  of  the  eye  . . . 296 

Arm,  right,  why  more  ufed  than  the  left  - 24 

Artery,  coronary  - - - - - 184 

carotids,  why  rifing  differently  * - 184 


Artery, 


33^ 

INDEX. 

P»g«i 

Artery,  cervical  - - - . 

- 

186 

fubclavian,  axillary,  &c. 

- 

186 

intercoftal,  &c.  . . _ 

- 

188 

phrenic,  &c.  „ . _ 

- 

188 

iliac  ----- 

- 

189 

inguinal,  &c.  - - 

- 

190 

pulmonary  _ _ _ - 

- 

183 

Arter 

ies,  what  - - _ - 

- 

2 

become  bony  _ . . 

- 

5 

coats  _ - - _ _ 

194. 

206 

the  angles  and  laws  of  ramification 

195 

the  force  of  their  contradions 

- 

196 

motion  of  the  blood  in  them  and  in  the 
veins  &c. 

Arachnoides  oi  the  brain  - - - - 221 

At  las  ^ or  jirji  vertebra  - - - - 22 

Barrennefs  of  women  - - - - 276 

Bile,  in  what  quantity  - t-  - - 164 

— ^,concreting,  forms  ftones  = - ■■  166 

, Billiary  duds  - - - - - - 163 

- - - - - 166 

Bladder  of  - - - - - 260 

• feldoMuLi^ated  - - - - 261 

Blood,  quantity,' celerity  of  its  motion,  &c.  206 

■  extravafated,  requires  hrft  purging,  and 

then  warm  attenuant  ~ 208 

Blood-letting  -----  89 

what  artery  in  danger  - - - 187 

Bones,  what  ^ 

■  ufe  -----  7.  4 

fibres  ------4,  9 

how  offify  and  grow  - - - 4 

fometimes  decreafe  or  wafle  - - 5 

why  hollow  -----  6 

theib place  fupplied  by  fhells  in  fmall  animals  7 

broken,  how  united  by  the  callus  - 7 

— have  not  vifible  lamella  - . - p 

their  compad  and  fpongy  ^ubfunce  7 9 

Bones, 


INDEX. 


337 

Page 


Bones,  diftorted  or  fradured,  cured  by  an  Indu- 


rating  pafte 

- 

- 

- 

37 

their  difeafes,  particularly  . 

caries 

- 

3S 

of  the  cranium 

- 

- 

=■ 

II 

face 

- 

- 

17 

trunk 

. 

- 

- 

21 

upper  limb 

- 

- 

29 

lower  limb 

- 

- 

34 

r — internal  ear 

- 

- 

- 

307 

Bony  ejfcrefcences  - 

- 

- 

- 

5 

Brain  = = - - 

- 

_ 

222 

• full  of  water  in  a lethargy 

- 

■■ 

224 

■ its  ftate  in  an  apoplexy 

- 

- 

- 

224 

fchirrhous  humours  in  the 

cerebrum 

- 

225 

impofthumations  of  the  cerebrum 

225 

Bread;  and  its  cancer 

- 

- 

- 

140 

Cacum,  or  appendix  vermiformis 

- 

- 

Callus^  unites  fradured  bones 

- 

- 

- 

7 

Canalis  arteriofus 

- 

284 

Cancer  - - - 

- 

- 

140 

Caries  of  bones 

- 

- 

- 

39 

Carpus,  bones  of  _ - 

- 

- 

- 

3^ 

Cartilages,  what 

.. 

3 

fubjed  to  offification 

■= 

- 

5 

fwelled  in  rickets 

- 

- 

- 

s 

prevent  contiguous  moveable 

bones 

from 

uniting 

- 

- 

B 

eroded,  occafion  anchylojis 

- 

- 

8 

where  placed  and  ufe 

- 

- 

&c. 

■ moveable  in  the  joint  of  the  jaw 

• 

41 

femllunar  in  the  knee 

- 

- 

42 

Cartilago  enfiformis 

- 

- 

- 

28 

Caruncula  lachrymalis 

- 

- ■■ 

- 

Caruncula  myrtiformes 

- 

- 

- 

273 

urethra 

- 

- 

- 

268 

Cadration,  how  to  fecure  the  veflels 

* 

- 

263 

Catamenia  . . „ 

- 

- 

275 

Catarad, 


INDEX. 


333 

Cataract,  why  the  patient  does  not  difcern  objects, 

thotigh  fenfible  of  light  and  colours  - 300 

Cerebellum  - - - - r-  - - 223 

its  wounds  caufe  fudden  death  - 224 

Cerebrum  - ~ - - - _ . 222  ' 

•  its  wounds  not  mortal  - - - 224 

Chorion  278 

Choroid es  oculi  - - - - - - 293 

Circulation,  the  complete  revolution  - - 217 

in  fmall  vefTels,  and  in  living  animals  204 

Clavicula  ~ - - - - - - 29 

Clitoris  - - ~ - - - - 272 

Colon  - - - - - - - 136 

Conception  - 269,  276 

Conjundlivn  oculi  ••  - - - - - 291 

Cornea  oculi  - - - - - - 291 

a great  refraftor  of  light  - - 298 

Couching,  not  fo  much  refraflion  in  the  eye  aftef 

the  operation  -----  298 

hiftory  of  a young  gentleman  - - 300 

Cowper,  Mr.  his  operation  on  the  antrum  - 19 

Cramp,  occafioning  firft  amputation,  and  then  death  207 
Cranium,  why  compofed  of  feveral  bones  - 12 

Cryftalline  humour  - - - .p  297 

a lens  for  refraftion  297,  298,  299 

Cuticula  - - - - - - - 134 

■  its  dlfeafes  - = - - - 134 

Cutis  - - - - “ p - 133 

fmall  painful  tumors  under  it  - p 136 

Chylihcation  - - - - - 216 

Deafnefs  caufed  by  redundant  cerumen  - - 303 

in  fome  cafes,  perhaps,  might  be  cured  by  per- 
forating the  membrana  tympani  - 306 

•  in  three  cafes,  probably,  prevented  by  blifler- 

ing  immediately  after  birth  - - 306 

■  cauled  by  the  polypus  of  the  nofe  compreffing 

the  Euftachiaii  tube  „ - „ ^o8 

Dentes. 


I N D 


X. 


339 


Dentes.  Vide  Teeth. 

Digeftion  of  the  aliment  - - - 

Diflocation  of  the  thigh  _ . _ 

knee  - - - - 

Dropfy  and  tapping  . - - - 

of  the  liver  _ . _ = 

— true  afcites  never  cured  - t 

in  the  duplicature  of  the  peritonaunt 

Dii£lus  arteriofus 


how  clofed 


Duodenum 
Dura  mater 


thoracicus 
venofus 


its  finules 
offified 


Ear,  external  = _ - - 

impofthumes  of  - 

membrana  tympani 

naturally  perforated 


— broke  in  a dog,  without  cauf- 

ing  deafnefs  - - - 

— deftroyed  by  ulcer,  and  the 

fmall  bones  thrown  out,  with- 
out deafnefs  - = 

— its  perforation  propofed 

fmall  bones,  with  mufcles  of  the  malleus  - 

Euftachian  tube  _ - » = 


Page 

152,  216 

. 44 

45 
211 
212 
215 
148,  149 
284 
287 
'169 

283 

155 

218 

219 

319 

304 

305 
305 
305 


221, 


Jlapes  its  mufcle 

labyrinth 

Emphyfema 

Epididymis 

Epiphyjis  of  bones 

Epigajlrium 

Erection  of  the  penis 

Excretory  veffel 

Exfoliation  of  bones 

Extravafation.  Vide  Blood, 


39 


305 


305 

-106 

307 

308 

309 
309 

138 

265 

8 

234 

269 

3 

) 40 


Eye 


340 


i N D E X. 


Eye  - - 

•—  tunica  conjun^iva 

' — — fclerotis  et  cornea  - - - „ 

iris  procejfus  ciliares  - 

— tunica  choroides  - - . _ „ 

— humours  of  - - - = - - 

inflammations  of,  require  immediate  aflilit- 

ance 

V — membrana  niditans,  in  amphibious  animals,  not 
for  refradtion  . - - , . 

Feeling,  the  fenfe  of  - - - = - 

Females,  why  fewer  born  than  males  - ? 

Fibres  what 

Fibula  ~ - = - - 

Figures  of  the  bones. 

I.  The  ikeleton  of  a child  twenty  months  old"] 
The  thigh-bone  of  a man  fawed  through  }> 
The  os  bregmatis  of  a foetus  of  fix  months  J 
The  head  with  the  lower  jaw 
A fedlion  of  the  fcull  and  upper  jaw  "j 
The  os  fphenoides  ...  k 

The  infide  of  the  bafe  of  the  fcull  J 

The  trunk  - - - - - 

The  vertebrcz  - - - . . 

Bones  of  the  arm,  fore-arm,  and  carpus 
The  hand 

8.  The  thigh  and  leg  of  the  fkeleton  •? 

9.  The  foot  of  the  Ikeleton  ? - » 

10.  The  adult  ikeleton  - 

Figures  of  the  mufcles. 

A mufcular  buflo  . . _ 

The  fore  view  of  a mufcular  trunk 
The  back  view  of  the  fame  - - 

Two  mufcuiar  arms  . . > 

A mufcular  arm  and  leg 
Two  mufcular  legs  . - . 

A mufcular  hand  „ _ » - 


2. 


o* 


4- 

5- 

6. 

7- 


1 1. 

12. 

13- 

1 4* 

15- 

16. 


Page 

290 

291 
291 
291 

293 

293 

296 

299 

297 

3” 

275 

2 

3^ 


5^ 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 
5^ 

57 

58 

59 

122 

123 

124 

125 

126 


■/' 


127 

128 
Figures 


r N 


n E X, 


34^ 


Figures 


Page 


18. 

19. 

20. 


[ Figures 

21. 

22. 


23- 


24. 

25. 

26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 


30* 


129 

130 

*3* 

249 


25a 


figures 

31- 


32- 

33- 

Figures 


of  the  mufcles. 

A mufcular  foot  , _ . - 

A complete  mufcular  figure 
The  mufcular  figures  of  Hercules  and  An~ 
taus 

of  the  vifcera. 

Vifcera  of  the  abdomen  and  thorax  in  Jitu 
The  liver,  pancreas^  fpleen,  and  kidneys, 
with  the  large  veffels  of  the  abdomen,  and 
contents  of  the  pelvis  - 

The  lafteals  of  jejunum 
The  origin  and  dillribution  of  the  fupe- 
rior  mefenteric  artery 
A full  view  of  the  vesia  portanm 
The  vence  hepaticce 
The  biliary  and  pancreatic  du£ls 
Receptaculum  chyli  et  dudus  thoracicus 
The  fuperior  and  inferior  cubital  nerves  ? 
Courfe  and  dillribution  of  humeral  artery  3 
The  parts  concerned  in  F.  S.  bracbii  7 ^ 

A tumor  extirpated  from  the  cubital  nerve  3 ^ 

The  medulla  fpinalis 
The  intercollal  nerve 
The  animalcules  in  femine 
The  circulation  in  a filh’s  tail 
A fmall  artery  and  a vein  fpread  on 
membrane 

of  the  organs  of  generation. 

The  bladder,  with  the  prollate  gland,'] 
veficula  feminales,  &c. 

A tranfverfe  feftion  of  the  penis 
A longitudinal  fedion  of  the  penis 
The  female  organs  of  generation 
The  parts  of  two  different  hermaphrodites 
of  the  fcetus. 


257 


] 

258 

J 


|>  312- 

J 

3^3 
3H 


34.  The  heart,  with  its  large  veffels 
The  heart,  with  the  foramen  ovale 
The  venal  fyllem  of  the  liver 


315 


Figures 


34^ 


1 N D 


Figures  of  the  Eye,  and  Cafes  of  Surgery. 

35.  A diagram  to  illuftrate  vifion,  and  the  dark 

or  infenfible  point  of  the  eye 

36.  The  operation  of  imperforated  iris 
The  operation  for  proptofts  cornea 
A diagram,  whence  dimnefs  of  fight  from  Y 

an  opacity  of  the  cornea  1 

A diagram,  whence  the  fenfe  of  light  in  j 
a cataradtous  eye  - - - J 

37.  An  oiiification  in  the  dura  mater 

in  the  heart  I 

of  both  tables  of  the  ' 


Page- 


316 


3^7 


3^' 

39- 

40. 


Two  exfoliations 

fcull  - - - - - 

Wood,  the  miller 

The  Bubonocele  performed  on  HeyJJmm 
White's  exomphalos 
Fingers,  bones  of  - _ _ - 

Fijlula  in  ano  - „ - - - 

perinao  _ - _ - 

Flea,  why  numerous  joints  in  its  legs 
Fluids,  their  proportion  to  the  folids 
Foetus,  it  is  nourillied  by  the  mouth 

receives  red  blood  from  the  mother 

circulation  of  its  blood 

Foramen  ovale  - - - _ . 

how  clofed  - - . 

not  open  in  water-animals 

Frafture,  how  united  by  callus 

how  bound  up  with  a pafte 

• of  the  fcull  - 

Funis  umbilicalis  - ~ 

Gall-bladder  _ _ _ . - 

Ganglion  of  nerves  --- 

Gland,  what  - 

■  ftrudlure  _ _ . _ 

lacrymal  - - 

lymphatic  _ - _ - 

■  miliary  _ _ _ - - 

mucilaginous,  of  joints 


j 


319 

321 

322 


72, 


33 

157 

267 
7 

206 

278 

182 

284 

284 

287 

288 

7 

37 

319 

283 

163 

227 

3 

146 
290 
2 1 2 
136 

47 

Gland, 


I N D 


X» 


345 


Gland,  pineal  - »•  - - - 213, 

— — pituitary  - - - - - 213, 

— falivary  - * - 

— economy  . . . _ 

■ — thymus  = 

^ — — thyroide  ------ 

Glandula  renales  . - - _ - 

Gonorrhaa  ------ 

Gutta  ferem  ftate  of  the  brain  and  optic  nerves 
Hsemorrhage,  why  commonly  on  furfaces 
Hffimorrhoides,  how  extirpated  - - - 

Hanging  kills  by  interrupting  refpiration 
Heart ' - --  --  -- 

offification  of  its  mufcular  fibres  5,  182. 

its  bafis  ulcerated,  with  pus  in  the  pericarp- 

dium  ------ 

— — large,  lax,  and  filled  with  polypi  in  fatal 
dropfies  - . - 

— its  force  ------ 

2nd  diajlole,  why  reciprocal 

throws  the  blood  along  the  whole  arterial 

fyftem 

Hernia.  Vide  Rupture. 

aquofa  ------ 

Hydrocele  ------ 

Hymen  ------- 

imperforated 

Hypochondrium  - - - - . 

Hypogajirium 

Jaundice ' ------ 

Jaw,  lower,  not  oflified  - - - - 

'Jejunum  - 

lleiim  intejiinum  . - - _ - 

Iliac  pafiion  ------ 

Impofthumations,  their  feat  - 

Injection  through  the  arteries  into  the  veins 

Inteflines  ----- 

why  fuch  a length  of  - - 


Page 

223 
222 
142- 

145 

213 
213 

262 
268 
225 

202 
158 

176 

177 

319 

i8r 

181 

196 

197 

200 

264 

263 
273 
273 

134 

134 

166 

5 

156 

156 

160 

139 

203 

155—158 

156 

Joint 


344 


I N D E 


Joint  of  the  thigh  impofthumated 
— difeafes  of  - , - 

Iris  ------ 

— a£ls  as  a fphinder  mufcle 

Kidneys  - - _ . . 

— — — tubuli^  papilla,  glands,  and  pehis 
■ — — — one  frequently  almoft  confumed 

■ — fometimes  but  one 

Labia  pudendi  - . - - . 

Labour,  child-bearing,  why  at  the  ufual  t 
Ladleals 

Ligament,  what  - - - , 

—  where  placed,  and  ufes 

Ligamentuni  uteri  rotundum  - = 

latum  - - - . 

Lithotomy,  an  account  of  - - ■ 

Liver  _ ^ . 

difeafed  - - - - . 

dropfical  - - - . . 

Lobfter,  its  fhells  and  joints 

Lungs 

Luxations  of  the  fpine  moft  commonly 
lower  dorfal  vertebras 
Lymphaedufts  - 

Males,  why  more  born  than  females 
Mamma  ------ 

- — cancerous  , - - - 

Marrow,  ^ily  - - - . - 

cells,  veficles,  &c. 

Maxillary  eland  - 


Page 


weeks 

Mediajlinwn 
Medulla  chloJigata 

wounded, 

— = — Jpinalis 


caufes  fudden  death 


- 

29 

- 

48 

- 

291 

- 

292 

- 

295 

260 

272 

- 

272 

- 

272 

e 

289 

- 

168 

- 

3 

* 43  3 

, hci 

- 

274 

- 

274 

- 

325 

- 

i6i 

- 

165 

212 

- 

7 

- 

172 

: the 

- 

16 

- 2, 

206 

- 

275 

- 

139 

- 

140 

- 

5 

- 

5 

- 

6 

- 

143 

nine 

- 

143 

- 

172 

- 

224 

th 

224 

- 

224 

Membrai:a 

Membrana  oblongata ^ its  wounds  - 
Membrana  adipofa  ----- 

— ^ its  difeafes  - - - 

tympani.  Vide  Ear, 

I nidlitans.  Vide  Eye. 

Membrane,  what  -----  i 

; — containing,  invefling,  &c. 

Mefentery 

Metacarpus  ------ 

Metatarfus^  bones  of 

Miller,  hiftory  of  the  lofs  of  his  arm 

Mans  Veneris  ------ 

Mortification,  fhould  feparate,  before  we  amputate 
Mufcles,  what  - - - 

— their  fibres  fuppofed  veficular 

— — — reftilineal,  penniform,  ufe  - 62. 

of  Vdo.  abdomen  - - - - 

of  the  genitals  and  anus 


Page 

224 

137 

138 


— of  the  fcalp,  ear,  eye,  lips,  and  nofe 

— of  the  os  hyoides,  tongue,  larynx,  pha~ 

rinx,  and  uvula  _ - - - 

of  the  lower  jaw 
of  the  clavicula  and  fcapula 
of  the  ns  humeri  _ - - - 

of  the  fore  arm  and  hand 
of  the  head  and  neck  - - - 

of  refpiration,  fpine,  and  pelvis 
of  the  thigh  and  leg  - . - 

of  the  foot  and  toes  - 

of  the  ojjicula  auditus 


- : 307^ 

Nephrotomy,  what  palfes  for  that  operation 
Nerves,  what  - - - - 2,  225, 

— ganglions  - 227, 

' inftruments  of  fenfation  and  of  motion 
=— > — ^ — ■ whether  vibrating  cords  or  traduftory 

tubes  -----  228, 

feem  to  decuflate  - - 


:,6l 

141 

160 

33 

37 

321 

272 

208 

3 

62 

&c. 

67 

69 

72 

78 

82 

83 
85 
88 

97 

102 

to? 

1^5 

309 

260 

246 

247 

247 


the  order  of  dilfedling  them 
of  encephalon  and  medulla  fpinalis 
Y 


247 
294 

240. 

229 

Nerves, 


34^ 


I N D E X. 


Nerves,  firft  pair 
fecond  pair 


probably  decuffate 


third  pair 
fourth 
fifth 

fixth  - = - - , - 

feventh  _ _ . - „ 

eighth  ------- 

ninth 

tenth  ------ 

of  the  tnedulla  fpinalis  - - - 

firft  cervical  - - - - - 

fecond  - _ - _ „ 

third  - - - - - 

fourth,  fifth,  fixth,  and  feventh  cervical, 
with  the  firft  dorfal  ~ - 

the  twelve  dorfal  - - » - 

the  five  lumbar  - - - - 

the  facral  . - . - - 

Dr.  his  opinion  of  the  fphenoidal  finufes 


Nicholls, 

Ny7iiphie 
Oefophagus 
Omentum 
Os  tineas 

— aethmoides 

' — coccygis  [- 

' — femoris 
' — frontis 

— humeri 

- inno7ninatum 
■ — 7nala 

— maxillcs  inferioris 
- fuperioris 


Pages 

230 

231 

®94 

231 

232 
232 

235 

236 
236 
238 
238 
240 

240 

241 

241 

242 
244 

244 

245 
14 

273 

150 


22 


■ nafi 

■ occipitis 
‘ palati 

■ parietale 


274 

725 

34 

12 

28 

17 
20 

18 

*7 

16 

19 
12 


I N D 


E X. 


Os  petrofim 

— planum  - - - - - 

— jacrum  _ . . _ _ 

— fpJienoides  _ _ _ . . 

— fpongiofum  - - - 

— temporis  - 

• — vomer  ------ 

OJJa  etiquetra  - 

OJficula  auditus  ----- 

Offification  in  the  dura  mater 

heart  - - . 

Offifying  matter,  deficient  in  a lower  jaw,  and  i 
the  rickets  ----- 

Ovaria  ------ 

Pancreas  - - - - - - 

Paracentejis  - _ _ . - 

Par  Otis,  gland  - - - 

its  du6l  wounded 

ulcerated 


22 


m 


Patella 


hpw  united  when  broken 


Penis 

Pericardium 


Pericranium 

Periojiaurn 


containing  pus 
adhering  to  the  heart 


Peritonaeum 
Pia  mater 


thickened  in  rickets 


Placenta 


ofiified 


Pleura 


its  veffels  anaftomofe  .with  thofe  of  the 
uterus  ----- 


Page. 

3 ;; 
iS 

> 25 

13 


"0 
20 
8,  1 1 

3°7 

319 

3^9 


5 

274 

1 1 1 

142 

143 
143 

r r“ 

dO 

’ ^ f 
.■?  ■> 


2 0 


/ 


Pleuritic  pains,  why  more  commonly  in  the  left  fide 
Polypus  of  blood  ----- 

Pope’s  eye  in  brutes  - » - - 


177 
iSr 

i8i 
10 
1 o 

5 

148 
221 
221 
28  r 

282 
1 72 

178 
210 
214 


ProceJJus 


34« 


INDEX. 


J^rocejfus  ciliares 

Procidentia  ani  ------ 

Projiatce  ------- 

■  difeafeJ  - - - - - 

Pupilla  - - - - - - - 

how  contrafted  and  opened 

why  round  and  oval  in  different  animals 

Radius  ------- 

Receptaculum  chyli  _ - - - - 

Red  Urn  intejiinum  - _ - , _ 

Regio  umbilicalis  ------ 

Refpiration,  motions  - - - - i 

ufe  . . - - - 

Reticulum  mucofum  - - - - _ 

Retina  ------- 

Ribs,  fractured  or  difforted  by  carelefs  nurfes 
Rupture  of  matter,  and  probably  of  the  gut,  un- 
der Faliopius''s  ligament  - - - 

of  matter,  and  of  blood  and  matter  into 

the  fore  part  of  the  thigh 

■  ^ — of  water  ----- 

cafe  of  HeyJhajn  - - - - 

White  - - - - , - 

Sanguification  - - _ . - 

Sclgrotis  tunica  ocidi  - - - - - 

Scapula 

Scarifications,  when  hurtful  . - - 

Scrobiculis  cordis  ------ 

Scurvy,  how  affefts  the  cuticula  - . - 

Scull.  Vide  Cranium. 

fradlured  ------ 


Secretion,  how  performed  - - - - 

Seed,  the  nature  of  its  animalcules 

Sella  turcica  ------ 

Sinus,  frontal  ------ 

■ of  the  os  fphenoides  ' - . - - 

of  the  maxillary  bone  - 

fometimes  impoffhumated 


5192 

*57 

5166 

266 

291 
293 

292 

32 

168 
*57 
*33 
04,  &c, 

*73 

*35 

293 
27 

47 

190 

264 

223 

324 

217 

291 

37 

208 

*33 

*34 

3*9 

147 

269 

*3 

13 

*4 
*9 
*9 
Skin 


J N D E 

34^ 

Skia  =, 

- 

- , 

Smelling,  the  fenfe  of  ^ 

- 

*■ 

- 

3ICT 

Solids,  their  proportion  to  fiuids 

- 

- 

- 

2o5 

Spine,  bones  of  - 

- 

- 

21 

• why  compofed  of  fb  many  bones 

- 

- 

22 

final  caufes  of  its  dilferent  curvatures 

23 

Spleen  - 

Sternum  » 

» 

* 

27 

Stomach  _ „ - « 

Stones,  extracted  from  the  loins 

260 

Stone,  fymptoms  of,  equivocal 

- 

- 

- 

261 

account  of  the  operation 

- 

- 

S’ 

325 

Sublingual  gland 

- 

- 

- 

^43 

Supprelfion  of  urine,  m the  kidneys  and  in 

the 

bladder,  different  ' - 

- 

- 

262 

how  to  be  treated 

- 

262 

Sutures,  how  formed 

8 

t what  _ - - 

211 

particular  ones 

- 

- 

• 

Tapping  for  the  dropfy  - - 

- 

211 

Tarfus,  bones  of  - 

- 

36 

Tafting,  the  fenTe  of  - - 

q 1 1 

Teeth  = = _ . 

- 

* 

20 

fhed  - » „ 

21 

Tendons,  what  = = - 

2 

pricked  in  bleeding 

- 

- 

- 

0 

89 

Tejies  _ _ _ _ 

- 

- 

.. 

262 

Thymus^  gland  - - _ 

- 

- 

212 

Tonfilla  glandulce 

- 

- 

* 

144 

how  extirpated 

- 

144 

Tooth-ache,  its-  feat 

- 

* 

2t 

Trepan,  not  applicable  at  the  frontal  fine 

IS 

I ^ 

Tuba  Fallopiana 

- 

- 

0 

275 

X umors,  fmall  ones  under  the  fkin  giving  ex- 

quilite  pain  - - _ 

- 

- 

- 

126 

Vagina  - - ■ - 

- 

- 

• 

273 

Vafa  defer entia  - - _ 

- 

- 

• 

266 

Vein,  what  » = _ 

XI 

2 

Vein 

35° 


1 


N jD  E X. 


Tein 


C03.t6  " » B « e 

why  curved  in  its  courfe  - « 

why  cutaneous  on  the  arm 
cava,  with  its  branches 
cephalic,  how.  avoided  in  cutting  iffues 
portarum  ----- 

in  .theyir/MJ  - _ - 

pulmonary  „ - _ 


194, 


Vena  laElea 
Vertebra  _ 

their  clatTes 


fupernunierary 
feminales 


bodies,  procetles 


Veficula  j 

Vjpion,  the  retina^  the  organ  of  - - - 

caufed  by  an  impulfe  on  the  retina 

how  carried  on  after  couching 

why  do  objects  appear  tingle  - 

why  do  not  objeds  appear  inverted 

obfervations  from  a young  gentleman, 

who  never  faw  till  couched 
Vitreous  humour  - _ _ _ „ 

Ulna  - - - - - - . - 

Ureters  - - » - - - - 

diftended  in  calculous  patients 


Urethra 


its  glands 
— ftridures 


in  women 


Urine  patfes  only  by  the  ureters 
Uterus  _ _ . - 

White  fwelling  - - - 


Page 

2b  c 
194 
192 

191 

192 

193 

283 

183 

168 

21 

22 

23 

28 

266 

294 

297 

298 

295 

297 

300 

299 

260 

271 

268 

268 

268 

273 

262 

273 

48 


FINIS. 


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